whole-mount-fluorescence-situ-hybridization-to-study-spermatogenesis

Whole-Mount Fluorescence <em>In Situ</em> Hybridization to Study Spermatogenesis in the <em>Anopheles</em> Mosquito

Spermatogenesis is a complex biological process during which diploid cells undergo successive mitotic and meiotic division followed by large structural ...

Imperial College London

Despite its function in sex determination and its role in driving genome evolution, the Y chromosome remains poorly understood in most species. Y chromosomes are gene-poor, repeat-rich and largely heterochromatic and therefore represent a difficult target for genetic engineering. The Y chromosome of the human malaria vector Anopheles gambiae appears to be involved in sex determination although very little is known about both its structure and function. Here, we characterize a transgenic strain of this mosquito species, obtained by transposon-mediated integration of a transgene construct onto the Y chromosome. Using meganuclease-induced homologous repair we introduce a site-specific recombination signal onto the Y chromosome and show that the resulting docking line can be used for secondary integration. To demonstrate its utility, we study the activity of a germ-line-specific promoter when located on the Y chromosome. We also show that Y-linked fluorescent transgenes allow automated sex separation of this important vector species, providing the means to generate large single-sex populations. Our findings will aid studies of sex chromosome function and enable the development of male-exclusive genetic traits for vector control.

Site-specific genetic engineering of the Anopheles gambiae Y chromosome.

It has been theorized that inducing extreme reproductive sex ratios could be a method to suppress or eliminate pest populations. Limited knowledge about the genetic makeup and mode of action of naturally occurring sex distorters and the prevalence of co-evolving suppressors has hampered their use for control. Here we generate a synthetic sex distortion system by exploiting the specificity of the homing endonuclease I-PpoI, which is able to selectively cleave ribosomal gene sequences of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae that are located exclusively on the mosquito's X chromosome. We combine structure-based protein engineering and molecular genetics to restrict the activity of the potentially toxic endonuclease to spermatogenesis. Shredding of the paternal X chromosome prevents it from being transmitted to the next generation, resulting in fully fertile mosquito strains that produce >95% male offspring. We demonstrate that distorter male mosquitoes can efficiently suppress caged wild-type mosquito populations, providing the foundation for a new class of genetic vector control strategies.

A synthetic sex ratio distortion system for the control of the human malaria mosquito.

Genetic control aims to reduce the ability of insect pest populations to cause harm via the release of modified insects. One strategy is to bias the reproductive sex ratio towards males so that a population decreases in size or is eliminated altogether due to a lack of females. We have shown previously that sex ratio distortion can be generated synthetically in the main human malaria vector Anopheles gambiae, by selectively destroying the X-chromosome during spermatogenesis, through the activity of a naturally-occurring endonuclease that targets a repetitive rDNA sequence highly-conserved in a wide range of organisms. Here we describe a CRISPR-Cas9 sex distortion system that targets ribosomal sequences restricted to the member species of the Anopheles gambiae complex. Expression of Cas9 during spermatogenesis resulted in RNA-guided shredding of the X-chromosome during male meiosis and produced extreme male bias among progeny in the absence of any significant reduction in fertility. The flexibility of CRISPR-Cas9 combined with the availability of genomic data for a range of insects renders this strategy broadly applicable for the species-specific control of any pest or vector species with an XY sex-determination system by targeting sequences exclusive to the female sex chromosome.

A CRISPR-Cas9 sex-ratio distortion system for genetic control.

Y chromosome function, structure and evolution is poorly understood in many species, including the  genus of mosquitoes-an emerging model system for studying speciation that also represents the major vectors of malaria. While the Anopheline Y had previously been implicated in male mating behavior, recent data from the  complex suggests that, apart from the putative primary sex-determiner, no other genes are conserved on the Y. Studying the functional basis of the evolutionary divergence of the Y chromosome in the gambiae complex is complicated by complete F1 male hybrid sterility. Here, we used an F1 × F0 crossing scheme to overcome a severe bottleneck of male hybrid incompatibilities that enabled us to experimentally purify a genetically labeled  Y chromosome in an  background. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) confirmed that the  Y retained its original sequence content in the  genomic background. In contrast to comparable experiments in , we find that the presence of a heterospecific Y chromosome has no significant effect on the expression of  genes, and transcriptional differences can be explained almost exclusively as a direct consequence of transcripts arising from sequence elements present on the  Y chromosome itself. We find that Y hybrids show no obvious fertility defects, and no substantial reduction in male competitiveness. Our results demonstrate that, despite their radically different structure, Y chromosomes of these two species of the gambiae complex that diverged an estimated 1.85 MYA function interchangeably, thus indicating that the Y chromosome does not harbor loci contributing to hybrid incompatibility. Therefore, Y chromosome gene flow between members of the gambiae complex is possible even at their current level of divergence. Importantly, this also suggests that malaria control interventions based on sex-distorting Y drive would be transferable, whether intentionally or contingent, between the major malaria vector species.

Cross-Species Y Chromosome Function Between Malaria Vectors of the  Species Complex.

Malaria is a serious global health burden, affecting more than 200 million people each year in over 90 countries, predominantly in Africa, Asia and the Americas. Since the year 2000, a concerted effort to combat malaria has reduced its incidence by more than 40%, primarily due to the use of insecticide-treated bednets, indoor residual spraying and artemisinin-based combination drug therapies. Nevertheless, the cost of control is expected to nearly triple over the next decade and the current downward trend in disease transmission is threatened by the rise of resistance to drugs and insecticides. Novel strategies that are sustainable and cost-effective are needed to help usher in an era of malaria elimination. The most effective strategies thus far have focussed on control of the mosquito vector. The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a potentially powerful strategy that aims to suppress mosquito populations through the unproductive mating of wild female mosquitoes with sterile males that are released en masse. The technique and its derivatives are currently not appropriate for malaria control because it is difficult to sterilise males without compromising their ability to mate, and because anopheline males cannot be easily separated from females, which if released, could contribute to disease transmission. Advances in genome sequencing technologies and the development of transgenic techniques provide the tools necessary to produce mosquito sexing strains, which promise to improve current malaria-control programs and pave the way for new ones. In this review, the progress made in the development of transgenic sexing strains for the control of Anopheles gambiae, a major vector of human malaria, is discussed.

Molecular tools and genetic markers for the generation of transgenic sexing strains in Anopheline mosquitoes.

I-PpoI is a homing endonuclease that has a high cleavage activity and specificity for a conserved sequence within the ribosomal rDNA repeats, located in a single cluster on the Anopheles gambiae X chromosome. This property has been exploited to develop a synthetic sex ratio distortion system in this mosquito species. When I-PpoI is expressed from a transgene during spermatogenesis in mosquitoes, the paternal X chromosome is shredded and only Y chromosome-bearing sperm are viable, resulting in a male-biased sex ratio of >95% in the progeny. These distorter male mosquitoes can efficiently suppress caged wild-type populations, providing a powerful tool for vector control strategies. Given that malaria mosquito vectors belong to a species complex comprising at least two major vectors, we investigated whether the sex distorter I-PpoI, originally integrated in the A. gambiae genome, could be transferred via introgression to the sibling vector species Anopheles arabiensis. In compliance with Haldane's rule, F1 hybrid male sterility is known to occur in all intercrosses among members of the Anopheles gambiae complex. A scheme based on genetic crosses and transgene selection was used to bypass F1 hybrid male sterility and introgress the sex distorter I-PpoI into the A. arabiensis genetic background. Our data suggest that this sex distortion technique can be successfully applied to target A. arabiensis mosquitoes.

Introgression of a synthetic sex ratio distortion system from Anopheles gambiae into Anopheles arabiensis.

A correction to this article has been published and is linked from the HTML and PDF versions of this paper. The error has not been fixed in the paper.

Publisher Correction: Introgression of a synthetic sex ratio distortion system from Anopheles gambiae into Anopheles arabiensis.

Although of high priority for the development of genetic tools to control malaria-transmitting mosquitoes, only a few germline-specific regulatory regions have been characterised to date and the presence of global regulatory mechanisms, such as dosage compensation and meiotic sex chromosome inactivation (MSCI), are mostly assumed from transcriptomic analyses of reproductive tissues or whole gonads. In such studies, samples include a significant portion of somatic tissues inevitably complicating the reconstruction of a defined transcriptional map of gametogenesis. By exploiting recent advances in transgenic technologies and gene editing tools, combined with fluorescence-activated cell sorting and RNA sequencing, we have separated four distinct cell lineages from the Anopheles gambiae male gonads: premeiotic, meiotic (primary and secondary spermatocytes) and postmeiotic. By comparing the overall expression levels of X-linked and autosomal genes across the four populations, we revealed a striking transcriptional repression of the X chromosome coincident with the meiotic phase, classifiable as MSCI, and highlighted genes that may evade silencing. In addition, chromosome-wide median expression ratios of the premeiotic population confirmed the absence of dosage compensation in the male germline. Applying differential expression analysis, we highlighted genes and transcript isoforms enriched at specific timepoints and reconstructed the expression dynamics of the main biological processes regulating the key stages of sperm development and maturation. We generated the first transcriptomic atlas of A. gambiae spermatogenesis that will expand the available toolbox for the genetic engineering of vector control technologies. We also describe an innovative and multidimensional approach to isolate specific cell lineages that can be used for the targeted analysis of other A. gambiae organs or transferred to other medically relevant species and model organisms.

High-resolution transcriptional profiling of Anopheles gambiae spermatogenesis reveals mechanisms of sex chromosome regulation.

Sex-ratio distorters based on X-chromosome shredding are more efficient than sterile male releases for population suppression. X-shredding is a form of sex distortion that skews spermatogenesis of XY males towards the preferential transmission of Y-bearing gametes, resulting in a higher fraction of sons than daughters. Strains harboring X-shredders on autosomes were first developed in the malaria mosquito , resulting in strong sex-ratio distortion. Since autosomal X-shredders are transmitted in a Mendelian fashion and can be selected against, their frequency in the population declines once releases are halted. However, unintended transfer of X-shredders to the Y-chromosome could produce an invasive meiotic drive element, that benefits from its biased transmission to the predominant male-biased offspring and its effective shielding from female negative selection. Indeed, linkage to the Y-chromosome of an active X-shredder instigated the development of the nuclease-based X-shredding system. Here, we analyze mechanisms whereby an autosomal X-shredder could become unintentionally Y-linked after release by evaluating the stability of an established X-shredder strain that is being considered for release, exploring its potential for remobilization in laboratory and wild-type genomes of  and provide data regarding expression on the mosquito Y-chromosome. Our data suggest that an invasive X-shredder resulting from a post-release movement of such autosomal transgenes onto the Y-chromosome is unlikely.

The Potential for a Released Autosomal X-Shredder Becoming a Driving-Y Chromosome and Invasively Suppressing Wild Populations of Malaria Mosquitoes.

The availability of the genomic sequence of the malaria mosquito  has in recent years sparked the development of transgenic technologies with the potential to be used as novel vector control tools. These technologies rely on genome editing that confer traits able to affect vectorial capacity. This can be achieved by either reducing the mosquito population or by making mosquitoes refractory to the parasite infection. For any genetically modified organism that is regarded for release, molecular characterization of the transgene and flanking sites are essential for their safety assessment and post-release monitoring. Despite great advancements, Whole-Genome Sequencing data are still subject to limitations due to the presence of repetitive and unannotated DNA sequences. Faced with this challenge, we describe a number of techniques that were used to identify the genomic location of a transgene in the male bias mosquito strain Ag(PMB)1 considered for potential field application. While the initial inverse PCR identified the most likely insertion site on Chromosome 3 R 36D, reassessment of the data showed a high repetitiveness in those sequences and multiple genomic locations as potential insertion sites of the transgene. Here we used a combination of DNA sequencing analysis and in-situ hybridization to clearly identify the integration of the transgene in a poorly annotated centromeric region of Chromosome 2 R 19D. This study emphasizes the need for accuracy in sequencing data for the genome of organisms of medical importance such as  mosquitoes and other tools available that can support genomic locations of transgenes.

Comprehensive characterization of a transgene insertion in a highly repetitive, centromeric region of  mosquitoes.

The last century has witnessed the introduction, establishment and expansion of mosquito-borne diseases into diverse new geographic ranges. Malaria is transmitted by female  mosquitoes. Despite making great strides over the past few decades in reducing the burden of malaria, transmission is now on the rise again, in part owing to the emergence of mosquito resistance to insecticides, antimalarial drug resistance and, more recently, the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic, which resulted in the reduced implementation efficiency of various control programs. The utility of genetically engineered gene drive mosquitoes as tools to decrease the burden of malaria by controlling the disease-transmitting mosquitoes is being evaluated. To date, there has been remarkable progress in the development of CRISPR/Cas9-based homing endonuclease designs in malaria mosquitoes due to successful proof-of-principle and multigenerational experiments. In this review, we examine the lessons learnt from the development of current CRISPR/Cas9-based homing endonuclease gene drives, providing a framework for the development of gene drive systems for the targeted control of wild malaria-transmitting mosquito populations that overcome challenges such as with evolving drive-resistance. We also discuss the additional substantial works required to progress the development of gene drive systems from scientific discovery to further study and subsequent field application in endemic settings.

Article	Year
Site-specific genetic engineering of the Anopheles gambiae Y chromosome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 24821795	2014
A synthetic sex ratio distortion system for the control of the human malaria mosquito. Nature communications\| PubMed ID: 24915045	2014
A CRISPR-Cas9 sex-ratio distortion system for genetic control. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 27484623	2016
Cross-Species Y Chromosome Function Between Malaria Vectors of the Species Complex. Genetics\| PubMed ID: 28860320	2017
Molecular tools and genetic markers for the generation of transgenic sexing strains in Anopheline mosquitoes. Parasites & vectors\| PubMed ID: 30583738	2018
Introgression of a synthetic sex ratio distortion system from Anopheles gambiae into Anopheles arabiensis. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 30914785	2019
Publisher Correction: Introgression of a synthetic sex ratio distortion system from Anopheles gambiae into Anopheles arabiensis. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 31114001	2019
High-resolution transcriptional profiling of Anopheles gambiae spermatogenesis reveals mechanisms of sex chromosome regulation. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 31619757	2019
The Potential for a Released Autosomal X-Shredder Becoming a Driving-Y Chromosome and Invasively Suppressing Wild Populations of Malaria Mosquitoes. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology\| PubMed ID: 34957064	2021
Comprehensive characterization of a transgene insertion in a highly repetitive, centromeric region of mosquitoes. Pathogens and global health\| PubMed ID: 35861105	2023
Driving down malaria transmission with engineered gene drives. Frontiers in genetics\| PubMed ID: 36338968	2022

Federica Bernardini

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