Name: Preparation of Yeast Cells for Imaging, Optimization of Imaging Conditions, and Image Collection
Uploaded: 2023-06-02T12:55:00
Duration: 2 min 33 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Yeast Cells for Imaging, Optimization of Imaging Conditions, and Image Collection at JoVE.com

preparation of yeast cells for imaging, optimization of imaging conditions, and image collection

Imaging of Mitochondrial Peroxide in Living Yeast Cells Using mtHyper7

Mitochondria are essential eukaryotic cellular organelles that are well known for their function in producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport1. In addition, mitochondria are sites for calcium storage, the synthesis of lipids, amino acids, fatty acid and iron-sulfur clusters, and signal transduction2,3. Within cells, mitochondria form a dynamic network with characteristic morphology and distribution, which varies according to cell type and metabolic state. Furthermore, although mitochondria can fuse and divide, not all the mitochondria in a cell are equivalent. Numerous studies have documented the functional heterogeneity of mitochondria within individual cells in attributes such as membrane potential and oxidative state4,5,6. This variation in mitochondrial function is due in part to damage to the organelle from mtDNA mutations (which occur at a higher rate than in nuclear DNA) and to oxidative damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated both within and outside the organelle7,8,9. Damage to the organelle is mitigated by mitochondrial quality control mechanisms that repair the damage or eliminate mitochondria that are damaged beyond repair10.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a reactive oxygen species that is a source of oxidative damage to cellular proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. However, H2O2 also serves as a signaling molecule that regulates cellular activities through the reversible oxidation of thiols in target proteins11,12. H2O2 is produced from electrons that leak from the mitochondrial electron transport chain and by specific enzymes, such as NADPH oxidase and monoamine oxidases13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20. It is also inactivated by antioxidant systems, including those based on thioredoxin and glutathione21,22,23. Thus, analysis of mitochondrial H2O2 levels is critical for understanding the role of this metabolite in normal mitochondrial and cellular function and under conditions of oxidative stress.
The overall goal of this protocol is to detect mitochondrial H2O2 using a genetically encoded ratiometric H2O2 biosensor, HyPer7, that is targeted to the organelle (mtHyPer7). mtHyPer7 is a chimera consisting of the mitochondrial signal sequence from ATP9 (the Su9 presequence), a circularly permuted form of green fluorescent protein (GFP), and the H2O2-binding domain of the OxyR protein from Neisseria meningitidis24 (Figure 1). In circularly permuted GFP, the N- and C-termini of native GFP are fused and new termini are formed near the chromophore, which impart greater mobility to the protein and greater lability of its spectral characteristics compared to native GFP25. The interaction of mtHyPer7&#39;s OxyR domain with H2O2 is high-affinity, H2O2-selective, and leads to reversible oxidation of the conserved cysteine residues and disulfide bridge formation. Conformational changes associated with the oxidation of OxyR are transferred to the circularly permuted GFP in mtHyPer7, which results in a spectral shift in the excitation maximum of the mtHyPer7 chromophore from 405 nm in the reduced state to&#160;488 nm in the H2O2-oxidized state26. Thus, the ratio of fluorescence from mtHyPer7 in response to excitation at 488 nm versus 405 nm reflects the oxidation of the probe by H2O2.
Ideally, a biosensor should provide a real-time, absolute, quantitative readout of its target molecule. Unfortunately, however, this is not always possible in real-world measurements. In the case of oxidation sensors, such as mtHyPer7, the real-time readout is affected by the rate of reduction of the disulfide bridge. The reduction systems used by ROS biosensors differ, and these can dramatically alter probe response dynamics-as shown by the comparison of HyPer7, reduced by the thioredoxin system, and roGFP2-Tsa2&#916;CR, reduced by glutathione-in yeast cytosol27. Thus, to draw a conclusion about the relative H2O2 concentration from mtHyPer7 ratios, one must assume that the reduction system maintains a constant capacity during the experiment. Notwithstanding these considerations, HyPer7 and related probes have been used in various contexts to obtain information about H2O2 in living cells25,28,29.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65428/65428fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Design, molecular mechanism, and excitation/emission spectra of the H2O2 biosensor mtHyPer7. (A) The mtHyPer7 probe is derived by inserting circularly permuted GFP into the OxyR-RD domain from Neisseria meningitidis. It contains the mitochondrial targeting sequence from subunit 9 of the ATP synthase from Neurospora crassa (Su9). (B) Illustration of the H2O2-sensing mechanism of mtHyPer7. Oxidation of cysteines in the RD domain increases fluorescence emission upon excitation at 488 nm and decreases emission produced by excitation at 405 nm. (C) Excitation and emission spectra of HyPer7 in oxidized and reduced forms. This figure is reprinted with permission from Pak et al.24. Abbreviations: GFP = green fluorescent protein; cpGFP = circularly permuted GFP. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65428/65428fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
This ratiometric imaging of mtHyPer7 offers important benefits for mitochondrial H2O2 quantitation24,27; it provides an internal control for probe concentration. In addition, the shift in excitation peak produced by H2O2 exposure is not complete, even in saturating concentrations of H2O2. Thus, ratio imaging can increase the sensitivity by incorporating two spectral points in the analysis.
The mtHyPer7 probe used here has a very high affinity for H2O2 and relatively low sensitivity to pH24, and has been successfully targeted to Caenorhabditis elegans mitochondria30. This protein has also been used in yeast27,31. However, previous studies relied on plasmid-borne expression of mtHyPer7, which results in cell-to-cell variability in probe expression27. In addition, the construct described in this protocol was integrated into a conserved, gene-free region on chromosome X32 using a CRISPR-based approach for marker-free integration. Expression of the integrated biosensor gene is also controlled by the strong constitutive TEF1 promoter (Figure 2). As a result, there is more stable, consistent expression of the biosensor in yeast cell populations compared to that observed using plasmid-borne biosensor expression, and cells bearing the biosensor can be propagated without the need for selective media.
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65428/65428fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Generation of mtHyPer7-expressing cells by CRISPR. The Cas9 and sgRNA-containing plasmid (YN2_1_LT58_X2site) and PCR-amplified mtHyPer7-containing biosensor construct are introduced into budding yeast cells by lithium acetate transformation. The gene-free insertion site on chromosome X (X2) is recognized and cut by Cas9 protein with the sgRNA, and the biosensor is integrated into the genome by homologous recombination. After identification of the successful transformants by microscopic screening, colony PCR, and sequencing, the Cas9 plasmid is removed (cured) by growth in non-selective media. Abbreviations: sgRNA = single guide RNA; TEF = transcription enhancer factor. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65428/65428fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Finally, mtHyPer7 offers advantages over other ROS biosensors. For example, organic dyes used to detect ROS (e.g., dihydroethidium [DHE]2 and MitoSOX3) can produce uneven or nonspecific staining and are often delivered in solvents such as ethanol or dimethyl sulfoxide, which require additional controls for solvent effects. Another class of ROS biosensors are fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based biosensors (e.g., Redoxfluor for cellular redox state4, and the peroxide sensors HSP-FRET5, OxyFRET6, and PerFRET6). These probes are genetically encoded and highly sensitive in principle and can be quantitatively targeted to mitochondria using well-characterized mitochondrial signal sequences. However, there are challenges in the use of FRET-based probes, including background due to cross-excitation and bleed-through, and stringent requirements for the proximity and orientation of the fluorophores for FRET to occur33,34. In addition, FRET probes consist of two fluorescent proteins that require larger constructs for expression in cells of interest compared to spectra-shifting probes. The protocol described here was developed to take advantage of the strengths of the HyPer7-based biosensor, and to use this compact, ratiometric, high-affinity, genetically encoded probe for quantitative imaging of peroxide in mitochondria in living yeast.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Mitochondrial Research - mtHyper7 Biosensor for Subcellular Analysis 

Imaging of mtHyPer7, a Ratiometric Biosensor for Mitochondrial Peroxide, in Living Yeast Cells

Mitochondria are organelles within cells that facilitate energy mobilization, central metabolism, production of vital macromolecules, calcium storage, and signal transduction. As a result, they play a crucial role in cellular function, fitness, and lifespan control. Our research focuses on investigating the impact of mitochondria on aging using the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model organism.Live cell imaging is our best tool to observe variation in mitochondrial function. Here we describe a method that utilizes a genetically encoded ratio metric spectral shifting biosensor called mitochondrial HyPer7. mtHyPer7 detects hydrogen peroxide, a reactive oxygen species, that can damage cellular constituents, but also functions as a signaling molecule in mitochondria of live cells.mtHyPer7 has a high affinity for hydrogen peroxide and low sensitivity to pH. It is integrated into the yeast genome, which results in stable and consistent expression in yeast cell populations. Finally, it is quantitatively targeted to mitochondria and has no detectable effect on cellular or mitochondrial function or fitness.Biosensors like mtHyPer7 are critical for studying mitochondrial function at subcellular resolution, for finding mechanisms underlying mitochondrial quality control, and for examining how that process affects cell fitness, feed, and lifespan. The mtHyPer7 stain provides consistent laboring in contrast to organic dyes utilized for reactive oxygen species detection. Compared to FRET-based sensors, mtHyPer7 is more compact and avoids issues such as cross-excitation and bleed through, as well as the precise positioning and the orientation requirements for FRET.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Yeast Cells for Imaging, Optimization of Imaging Conditions, and Image Collection at JoVE.com

Preparation of Yeast Cells for Imaging, Optimization of Imaging Conditions, and Image Collection  

To begin, take one milliliter of a mid-log phase budding yeast cell culture, expressing mitochondria-targeted HyPer7. Centrifuge the cells at 6, 000 G for 30 seconds, and remove the supernatant, leaving 10 to 20 microliters in the tube. Re-suspend the cell pellet by gently mixing it with residual media using a micro-pipette.Next, use an air blower or lint-free tissue to clean a glass microscope slide, and add 1.8 microliters of the cell suspension to the slide. Finally, cover the cells with number 1.5 glass cover slip by lowering it slowly at an angle to avoid introducing bubbles. Then place the slide on the microscope stage.To image the cells, set up the acquisition conditions to ensure a detectable signal and acceptable resolution in each fluorescence channel. For example, on a spinning disc confocal microscope with an sCMOS camera use 2x2 binning, 20 to 40%laser power, and 200 to 600 milliseconds exposure. Next, examine the image histogram.In a 12-bit image ensure the total dynamic range of the pixel values is at least several hundred gray levels without saturation. Additionally, ensure the range is one order of magnitude higher than the noise level. To calculate the noise level, measure the standard deviation of pixel values in a cell-free area of an image.Then collect time-lapse images with no delay between acquisitions to evaluate the effects of the imaging conditions on signal stability and oxidative stress in mitochondria. Using the microscope acquisition software or ImageJ, measure the average pixel value in each fluorescence channel to ensure signal stability. If the experiment does not involve time-lapse imaging, ensure that the fluorescence is stable over two or three repeated Z-stacks.Acquire images with a Z interval of 0.5 micrometers in a total stack depth of six micrometers for budding yeast. If collecting Z-stacks ensure that the Z interval is the same for all images in the dataset and include the entire cell. Also acquire transmitted light images to document cell boundaries.

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