我们感谢W。刘某的意见，我们最初的成像设置，Z Gitai建议使用ImageJ 13来算蠕虫，使用Google SketchUp的帮助和J.阿什拉夫。 CTM是皮尤研究中心在生物医学科学的学者，麦克奈特学者和凯克学者。

<ol>
	<li>Bargmann, C. I., Hartwieg, E., Horvitz, H. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Odorant-selective+genes+and+neurons+mediate+olfaction+in+C.+elegans.">Odorant-selective genes and neurons mediate olfaction in C. elegans.</a> Cell. 74, 515-515 (1993).</li><li>Ward, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemotaxis+by+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans:+identification+of+attractants+and+analysis+of+the+response+by+use+of+mutants.">Chemotaxis by the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans: identification of attractants and analysis of the response by use of mutants.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 70, 817-817 (1973).</li><li>Bono, M. d. e., Maricq, A. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuronal+substrates+of+complex+behaviors+in+C.+elegans.">Neuronal substrates of complex behaviors in C. elegans.</a> Annu Rev Neurosci. 28, 451-451 (2005).</li><li>Mori, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetics+of+chemotaxis+and+thermotaxis+in+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Genetics of chemotaxis and thermotaxis in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Annu Rev Genet. 33, 399-399 (1999).</li><li>Zhang, Y., Lu, H., Bargmann, C. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathogenic+bacteria+induce+aversive+olfactory+learning+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Pathogenic bacteria induce aversive olfactory learning in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Nature. 438, 179-179 (2005).</li><li>Kauffman, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Insulin+signaling+and+dietary+restriction+differentially+influence+the+decline+of+learning+and+memory+with+age.">Insulin signaling and dietary restriction differentially influence the decline of learning and memory with age.</a> PLoS Biol. 8, e1000372-e1000372 (2010).</li><li>Torayama, I., Ishihara, T., Katsura, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caenorhabditis+elegans+integrates+the+signals+of+butanone+and+food+to+enhance+chemotaxis+to+butanone.">Caenorhabditis elegans integrates the signals of butanone and food to enhance chemotaxis to butanone.</a> J Neurosci. 27, 741-741 (2007).</li><li>Silva, A. J., Kogan, J. H., Frankland, P. W., Kida, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CREB+and+memory.">CREB and memory.</a> Annu Rev Neurosci. 21, 127-127 (1998).</li><li>Meyer, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Iterative+image+transformations+for+an+automatic+screening+of+cervical+smears.">Iterative image transformations for an automatic screening of cervical smears.</a> J Histochem Cytochem. 27, 128-128 (1979).</li><li>Otsu, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Threshold+Selection+Method+from+Gray-Level+Histograms.">A Threshold Selection Method from Gray-Level Histograms.</a> IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. 9, 62-62 (1979).</li><li>Brenner, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetics+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">The genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Genetics. 77, 71-71 (1974).</li><li>Stephens, G. J., Johnson-Kerner, B., Bialek, W., Ryu, W. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dimensionality+and+dynamics+in+the+behavior+of+C.+elegans.">Dimensionality and dynamics in the behavior of C. elegans.</a> PLoS Comput Biol. 4, e1000028-e1000028 (2008).</li><li>Abramoff, M. a. g. e. l. h. a. e. s., Ram, P. J., J, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Image+Processing+with+ImageJ.">Image Processing with ImageJ.</a> Biophotonics International. 11, 36-36 (2004).</li></ol>

c. 在线虫嗅觉的联想学习和记忆的分析，提出了区分集结学习，行距学习，短期记忆和长期记忆的过程。依靠这些检测蠕虫的能力，意识在他们的环境1,2的食品和化学气味，并形成两者之间的正相关。6因此，实验是非常敏感的动物开始人口的饥饿，必须十分小心采取措施，确保美联储前和培训后，蠕虫病毒。单集结训练产生短期的联想记忆。空调期和间隔训练范式数上升是在 C中实现长期的联想记忆的关键线虫 ，因为它在其他生物体中。6,8也许可以修改这个实验产生长期记忆的不同条件和无条件刺激之间的关联。 可以用我们的联想学习和记忆的分析，比较野生型的学习和记忆能力的老化或遗传突变的动物。例如，而联想学习和长期的联想记忆能力下降老化野生型蠕虫，学习是保持与动物的年龄与降低胰岛素信号，与学习和记忆不再是维持较长calorically限制动物随着年龄的增长6。这些分析也适合的RNAi治疗或C.药理操纵线虫 。例如，蠕虫与DAF - 2 RNA干扰治疗可改善短期和长期的联想记忆，相反，基因转录和蛋白质的合成与药物（放线菌素D和放线菌酮），分别间隔训练期间堵塞，扰乱了长期记忆的形成。 6 长期记忆是一个过程，是所有动物的生存至关重要，它出现，内存中的一个巴甫洛夫协会所涉及的分子机器大部分是从哺乳动物的蠕虫保守 6分辨能力和测试联想学习，短短期和长期记忆使用这些嗅觉检测使得C 。 线虫一个优秀的系统内存的进一步研究，并可能为神经退化过程，导致在人类学习和记忆的丧失洞察力。

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">	
		
		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Sodium Azide</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
<td>S227</td>
<td>Prepare 1 M concentration in distilled water</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ethyl Alcohol 190 Proof</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Pharmco-Aaper</td>
<td>DSP-CT-18</td>
<td>&gt;95% Ethanol may have impurities that interfere with chemotaxis assays</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2-Butanone 99+%</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Acros</td>
<td>14967-0010</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Basler IEEE-1394/FireWire Area Scan CMOS Camera</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT56-683</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>InfiniMite Video Lens &#x2013; Alpha Industrial</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT56-202</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dolan-Jenner MI-150 Fiber Optic Illuminator</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT55-718</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>8&#x201D; x 8&#x201D; Backlight</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Schott Fostec</td>
<td>A08927</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Standard Boom Stand</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT54-120</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>3/4&#x201D; Post Adaptor for Boom Stands</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT54-124</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Standard Fixed 1/4-20 Mounting Plate</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT54-122</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

c. elegans positive butanone learning, short-term, and long-term associative memory assays

经验和教训的信息的记忆是对生物体做出选择，帮助他们生存的关键。 C。 线虫导航环境，通过神经元特异性检测食品和化学品气味1，2和化学气味3，温度 4， 和 5食物来源的致病关联的营养状态。 在这里，我们描述了线虫联想学习和短期和长期的联想记忆的实验。我们修改了一个厌恶的嗅觉学习范式，而不是产生了积极的回应;检测涉及挨饿〜400蠕虫病毒，然后喂养存在AWC神经遥感挥发趋化丁酮的浓度，引发低的趋化指数（类似的蠕虫Toroyama 等7）。一个标准的人口趋assay1测试蠕虫的吸引力的气味立即分钟后调理小时。 经过调理，野生型动物的趋化丁酮增加〜0.6趋化指数的单位，其“学习指数”。联想学习是依赖于在培训期间的食品和丁酮的存在。配对为一个单一的调整期（“集结培训”）的食品和丁酮产生短期的联想记忆，持续1〜2小时。 （“间隔训练”）之间的休息时间多空调期间产生长期的联想记忆（&lt;40小时），并依赖于cAMP反应元件结合蛋白（CREB），6个长期内存跨越所需的转录因子种8。 我们的协议还包括为快速，准确地测定趋化指数的图像分析方法。动物趋化实验板的高对比度的图像捕获和分析蠕虫计数MATLAB软件。软件修正不均匀使用一个形态tophat转型背景的 9大津的方法是再使用，以确定一个阈值从后台单独的蠕虫 10非常小的颗粒被删除自动和较大的非WORM地区（板边缘或琼脂拳）是手动选择删除。然后，该软件估计由单一的蠕虫病毒的大小，忽略上面指定的最大大小的区域，其余地区的平均大小。蠕虫的数量，然后除以确定蠕虫占用由一个单一的蠕虫的规模估计总面积估计。 我们发现，学习和短期和长期记忆可以区分，以及这些过程与高等生物上有着类似的关键分子 。6,8我们的分析，可以快速测试的新的候选基因或分子，影响了学习和短期或长期在 C中的长期记忆线虫是跨物种有关。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays at JoVE.com

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

在这里，我们描述的方法来测试线虫联想学习和短期和长期的联想记忆。这些人口分析蠕虫的能力，以chemotax聘请走向挥发的气味，并形成积极的联想后，搭配食物的趋化丁酮。空调期间的人数增加导致长期记忆。

线虫的积极丁酮学习，短期，长期联想记忆检测

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment ...

c-elegans-positive-butanone-learning-short-term-long-term-associative

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

29.1K 次观看.  Princeton University. 在这里，我们描述的方法来测试线虫联想学习和短期和长期的联想记忆。这些人口分析蠕虫的能力，以chemotax聘请走向挥发的气味，并形成积极的联想后，搭配食物的趋化丁酮。空调期间的人数增加导致长期记忆。

视频: C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of these diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease are characterized by age-dependent deterioration in learning and memory functions and movement coordination2. Here we use behavioral assays, including the negative geotaxis assay3 and the aversive phototaxic suppression assay (APS assay)4,5, to show that some of the behavior characteristics associated with human neurodegeneration can be recapitulated in flies. In the negative geotaxis assay, the natural tendency of flies to move against gravity when agitated is utilized to study genes or conditions that may hinder locomotor capacities. In the APS assay, the learning and memory functions are tested in positively-phototactic flies trained to associate light with aversive bitter taste and hence avoid this otherwise natural tendency to move toward light. Testing these trained flies 6 hours post-training is used to assess memory functions. Using these assays, the contribution of any genetic or environmental factors toward developing neurodegeneration can be easily studied in flies.

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Behavior assays for measuring locomotor functions, learning, and memory abilities in Drosophila.

含量的运动能力，学习和记忆的赤字果蝇</em神经退行性疾病>模型

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

科研

神经科学

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron is damaged by injury or disease, it may regenerate. Cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the ability of a neuron to regenerate and restore function. Recently, the nematode C. elegans has emerged as an excellent model organism to identify genes and signaling pathways that influence the regeneration of neurons1-6. The main way to initiate neuronal regeneration in C. elegans is laser-mediated cutting, or axotomy. During axotomy, a fluorescently-labeled neuronal process is severed using high-energy pulses. Initially, neuronal regeneration in C. elegans was examined using an amplified femtosecond laser5. However, subsequent regeneration studies have shown that a conventional pulsed laser can be used to accurately sever neurons in vivo and elicit a similar regenerative response1,3,7.
We present a protocol for performing in vivo laser axotomy in the worm using a MicroPoint pulsed laser, a turnkey system that is readily available and that has been widely used for targeted cell ablation. We describe aligning the laser, mounting the worms, cutting specific neurons, and assessing subsequent regeneration. The system provides the ability to cut large numbers of neurons in multiple worms during one experiment. Thus, laser axotomy as described herein is an efficient system for initiating and analyzing the process of regeneration.

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

A protocol to cut neurons in C. elegans with a MicroPoint pulsed laser is presented. We describe setting up the system, immobilizing worms, and severing labeled neurons. Advantages include a relatively low-cost system and the ability to sever neuronal processes or ablate cells in vivo.

在 C 在体内激光干切断线虫

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron ...

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also propagation of suprathreshold spiking activity involves populations of neurons. Empirical studies addressing cortical function directly thus require recordings from populations of neurons with high resolution. Here we describe an optical method and a deconvolution algorithm to record neural activity from up to 100 neurons with single-cell and single-spike resolution. This method relies on detection of the transient increases in intracellular somatic calcium concentration associated with suprathreshold electrical spikes (action potentials) in cortical neurons. High temporal resolution of the optical recordings is achieved by a fast random-access scanning technique using acousto-optical deflectors (AODs)1. Two-photon excitation of the calcium-sensitive dye results in high spatial resolution in opaque brain tissue2. Reconstruction of spikes from the fluorescence calcium recordings is achieved by a maximum-likelihood method. Simultaneous electrophysiological and optical recordings indicate that our method reliably detects spikes (&gt;97% spike detection efficiency), has a low rate of false positive spike detection (&lt; 0.003 spikes/sec), and a high temporal precision (about 3 msec) 3. This optical method of spike detection can be used to record neural activity in vitro and in anesthetized animals in vivo3,4.

Understanding the function of the vertebrate central nervous system requires recordings from many neurons because cortical function arises on the level of populations of neurons. Here we describe an optical method to record suprathreshold neural activity with single-cell and single-spike resolution, dithered random-access scanning. This method records somatic fluorescence calcium signals from up to 100 neurons with high temporal resolution. A maximum-likelihood algorithm deconvolves the underlying suprathreshold neural activity from the somatic fluorescence calcium signals. This method reliably detects spikes with high detection efficiency and a low rate of false positives and can be used to study neural populations in vitro and in vivo.

阈上的神经活动的单细胞和单穗的分辨率的光学的方法记录

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also ...

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the surface of an agar plate. For the study of the genetic, biochemical, and neuronal basis of behavior, C. elegans is an ideal organism because it is genetically tractable, amenable to microscopy, and shows a number of complex behaviors, including taxis, learning, and social interaction1,2. Behavioral analysis based on tracking the movements of worms as they crawl on agar plates have been particularly useful in the study of sensory behavior3, locomotion4, and general mutational phenotyping5. Our system works by moving the camera and illumination system as the worms crawls on a stationary agar plate, which ensures no mechanical stimulus is transmitted to the worm. Our tracking system is easy to use and includes a semi-automatic calibration feature. A challenge of all video tracking systems is that it generates an enormous amount of data that is intrinsically high dimensional. Our image processing and data analysis programs deal with this challenge by reducing the worms shape into a set of independent components, which comprehensively reconstruct the worms behavior as a function of only 3-4 dimensions6,7. As an example of the process we show that the worm enters and exits its reversal state in a phase specific manner.

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed a video-rate tracking microscope system that can record and quantify C. elegans behavior at high resolution and high speeds. We have also developed computational methods to reduce the dimensionality of the worm images to a fundamental set of measurements that completely describe the shape of the worm.

线虫跟踪和行为测量

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the ...

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

In the following we describe the methodological details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with genetic interference, provides a handle to analyze the neuronal and molecular fundamentals of specifically associative learning in a simple larval brain.
Organisms can use past experience to adjust present behavior. Such acquisition of behavioral potential can be defined as learning, and the physical bases of these potentials as memory traces1-4. Neuroscientists try to understand how these processes are organized in terms of molecular and neuronal changes in the brain by using a variety of methods in model organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates5,6. For such endeavors it is helpful to use model systems that are simple and experimentally accessible. The Drosophila larva has turned out to satisfy these demands based on the availability of robust behavioral assays, the existence of a variety of transgenic techniques and the elementary organization of the nervous system comprising only about 10,000 neurons (albeit with some concessions: cognitive limitations, few behavioral options, and richness of experience questionable)7-10.
Drosophila larvae can form associations between odors and appetitive gustatory reinforcement like sugar11-14. In a standard assay, established in the lab of B. Gerber, animals receive a two-odor reciprocal training: A first group of larvae is exposed to an odor A together with a gustatory reinforcer (sugar reward) and is subsequently exposed to an odor B without reinforcement 9. Meanwhile a second group of larvae receives reciprocal training while experiencing odor A without reinforcement and subsequently being exposed to odor B with reinforcement (sugar reward). In the following both groups are tested for their preference between the two odors. Relatively higher preferences for the rewarded odor reflect associative learning - presented as a performance index (PI). The conclusion regarding the associative nature of the performance index is compelling, because apart from the contingency between odors and tastants, other parameters, such as odor and reward exposure, passage of time and handling do not differ between the two groups9.

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are able to associate odor stimuli with gustatory reward. Here we describe a simple behavioral paradigm that allows the analysis of appetitive associative olfactory learning.

欲求联想嗅觉学习<em&gt;果蝇</em&gt;幼虫

In the following we describe the methodological  details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with ...

A Molecular Readout of Long-term Olfactory Adaptation in C. elegans

During sustained stimulation most sensory neurons will adapt their response by decreasing their sensitivity to the signal. The adaptation response helps shape attention and also protects cells from over-stimulation. Adaptation within the olfactory circuit of C. elegans was first described by Colbert and Bargmann1,2. Here, the authors defined parameters of the olfactory adaptation paradigm, which they used to design a genetic screen to isolate mutants defective in their ability to adapt to volatile odors sensed by the Amphid Wing cells type C (AWC) sensory neurons. When wildtype C. elegans animals are exposed to an attractive AWC-sensed odor3 for 30 min they will adapt their responsiveness to the odor and will then ignore the adapting odor in a chemotaxis behavioral assay for ~1 hr. When wildtype C. elegans animals are exposed to an attractive AWC-sensed odor for ~1 hr they will then ignore the adapting odor in a chemotaxis behavioral assay for ~3 hr. These two phases of olfactory adaptation in C. elegans were described as short-term olfactory adaptation (induced after 30 min odor exposure), and long-term olfactory adaptation (induced after 60 min odor exposure). Later work from L'Etoile et al.,4 uncovered a Protein Kinase G (PKG) called EGL-4 that is required for both the short-term and long-term olfactory adaptation in AWC neurons. The EGL-4 protein contains a nuclear localization sequence that is necessary for long-term olfactory adaptation responses but dispensable for short-term olfactory adaptation responses in the AWC4. By tagging EGL-4 with a green fluorescent protein, it was possible to visualize the localization of EGL-4 in the AWC during prolonged odor exposure. Using this fully functional GFP-tagged EGL-4 (GFP::EGL-4) molecule we have been able to develop a molecular readout of long-term olfactory adaptation in the AWC5. Using this molecular readout of olfactory adaptation we have been able to perform both forward and reverse genetic screens to identify mutant animals that exhibit defective subcellular localization patterns of GFP::EGL-4 in the AWC6,7. Here we describe: 1) the construction of GFP::EGL-4 expressing animals; 2) the protocol for cultivation of animals for long-term odor-induced nuclear translocation assays; and 3) the scoring of the long-term odor-induced nuclear translocation event and recovery (re-sensitization) from the nuclear GFP::EGL-4 state.

A Molecular Readout of Long-term Olfactory Adaptation in C. elegans

Here we describe a molecular readout of long-term olfactory adaptation in Caenorhabditis elegans. The Protein Kinase G, EGL-4, is necessary for stable adaptation responses in the primary sensory neuron pair called AWC. During prolonged odor exposure EGL-4 translocates from the cytosol to nucleus of the AWC.

长期的嗅觉适应性的分子读数<em&gt; C.线虫</em

During sustained stimulation most sensory neurons will adapt their response by decreasing their sensitivity to the signal. The adaptation response helps ...

Agarose Microchambers for Long-term Calcium Imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans

Behavior is controlled by the nervous system. Calcium imaging is a straightforward method in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to measure the activity of neurons during various behaviors. To correlate neural activity with behavior, the animal should not be immobilized but should be able to move. Many behavioral changes occur during long time scales and require recording over many hours of behavior. This also makes it necessary to culture the worms in the presence of food. How can worms be cultured and their neural activity imaged over long time scales? Agarose Microchamber Imaging (AMI) was previously developed to culture and observe small larvae and has now been adapted to study all life stages from early L1 until the adult stage of C. elegans. AMI can be performed on various life stages of C. elegans. Long-term calcium imaging is achieved without immobilizing the animals by using short externally triggered exposures combined with an electron multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD) camera recording. Zooming out or scanning can scale up this method to image up to 40 worms in parallel. Thus, a method is described to image behavior and neural activity over long time scales in all life stages of C. elegans.

Agarose Microchambers for Long-term Calcium Imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans

Imaging behavior and neural activity over long time scales without immobilization of the animal is a prerequisite to understand behavior. Agarose microfluidic chambers imaging (AMI) can be used to image neural activity and behavior for all life stages of Caenorhabditis elegans.

琼脂糖微室的长期钙成像<em&gt;秀丽隐杆线虫</em

Behavior is controlled by the nervous system. Calcium imaging is a straightforward method in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to measure ...

Assessing Spatial Learning and Memory in Small Squamate Reptiles

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, interest in the cognitive processes of nonmodel species, typically within an ecological context, has also become an emerging field of study. In particular, interest in the cognitive processes in reptiles is growing although experimental studies on reptilian cognition are sparse. The few reptilian studies that have experimentally tested for spatial learning and memory have used rodent paradigms modified for use in reptiles. However, ecologically important aspects of the physiology and behavior of this taxonomic group must be taken into account when testing for spatially based cognition. Here, we describe modifications of the dry land Barnes maze and associated testing protocol that can improve performance when probing for spatial learning and memory ability in small squamate reptiles. The described paradigm and procedures were successfully used with male side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana), demonstrating that spatial learning and memory can be assessed in this taxonomic group with an ecologically relevant apparatus and protocol.

This paper describes a modification of the Barnes maze, a standard rodent paradigm used to assess spatial memory and learning, for use in small squamate reptiles.

评估空间学习记忆小鳞类爬行动物

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, ...

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model organisms such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is useful for understanding the basic neurobiology underlying cognitive deficits resulting from mutations in genes associated with human cognitive disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID) and autism. This work describes a methodology for testing learning and memory using a classic paradigm in Drosophila known as courtship conditioning. Male flies court females using a distinct pattern of easily recognizable behaviors. Premated females are not receptive to mating and will reject the male&#39;s copulation attempts. In response to this rejection, male flies reduce their courtship behavior. This learned reduction in courtship behavior is measured over time, serving as an indicator of learning and memory. The basic numerical output of this assay is the courtship index (CI), which is defined as the percentage of time that a male spends courting during a 10 min interval. The learning index (LI) is the relative reduction of CI in flies that have been exposed to a premated female compared to na&#239;ve flies with no previous social encounters. For the statistical comparison of LIs between genotypes, a randomization test with bootstrapping is used. To illustrate how the assay can be used to address the role of a gene relating to learning and memory, the pan-neuronal knockdown of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (Dhap-at) was characterized here. The human ortholog of Dhap-at, glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPT), is involved in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2, an autosomal-recessive syndrome characterized by severe ID. Using the courtship conditioning assay, it was determined that Dhap-at is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory. This result serves as a basis for further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

This protocol describes a Drosophila learning and memory assay called courtship conditioning. This classic assay is based on a reduction of male courtship behavior after sexual rejection by a non-receptive premated female. This natural form of behavioral plasticity can be used to test learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

果蝇调理作为学习和记忆的措施

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model ...

Generation and Long-term Maintenance of Nerve-free Hydra

The interstitial cell lineage of Hydra includes multipotent stem cells, and their derivatives: gland cells, nematocytes, germ cells, and nerve cells. The interstitial cells can be eliminated through two consecutive treatments with colchicine, a plant-derived toxin that kills dividing cells, thus erasing the potential for renewal of the differentiated cells that are derived from the interstitial stem cells. This allows for the generation of Hydra that lack nerve cells. A nerve-free polyp cannot open its mouth to feed, egest, or regulate osmotic pressure. Such animals, however, can survive and be cultured indefinitely in the laboratory if regularly force-fed and burped. The lack of nerve cells allows for studies of the role of the nervous system in regulating animal behavior and regeneration. Previously published protocols for nerve-free Hydra maintenance involve outdated techniques such as mouth-pipetting with hand-pulled micropipette tips to feed and clean the Hydra. Here, an improved protocol for maintenance of nerve-free Hydra is introduced. Fine-tipped forceps are used to force open the mouth and insert freshly killed Artemia. Following force-feeding, the body cavity of the animal is flushed with fresh medium using a syringe and hypodermic needle to remove undigested material, referred to here as "burping". This new method of force-feeding and burping nerve-free Hydra through the use of forceps and syringes eliminates the need for mouth-pipetting using hand-pulled micropipette tips. It thus makes the process safer and significantly more time efficient. To ensure that the nerve cells in the hypostome have been eliminated, immunohistochemistry using anti-tyrosine-tubulin is conducted.

Generation and Long-term Maintenance of Nerve-free Hydra

Through a double treatment with colchicine, a plant-derived toxin that kills dividing cells, nerve-free Hydra vulgaris can be generated. These Hydra cannot feed or egest on their own. This paper describes an improved method for long-term maintenance of nerve free Hydra vulgaris in the laboratory.

无神经的一代和长期维持<em&gt;水润</em

The interstitial cell lineage of Hydra includes multipotent stem cells, and their derivatives: gland cells, nematocytes, germ cells, and nerve cells. The ...