这项工作是从威康信托基金（编号：084277）赠款支持。

1。小脑颗粒神经元的制备<ol><li>高压灭菌约100直径25毫米的盖玻片（见表1）。 </li><li>在50毫升无菌无菌聚D -赖氨酸溶液（见表2）管放置盖玻片。广场上为2小时到涂层的盖玻片的旋转平台。 </li><li>干涂层盖玻片，在层流罩（见表1）消毒纸巾。 </li><li> 可以储存在4 ° C放置盖玻片进入无菌6孔板和温暖在二氧化碳培养箱（见表1）。 盖玻片在使用前1个月 。 </li><li>安乐死7天的老只大鼠小狗根据当地的伦理委员会的指引。我们使用颈椎脱位安乐死幼仔。 </li><li>剖析小脑和放置在无菌培养皿菜含有磷酸盐缓冲盐溶液（溶液B，表3）。 </li><li>重复步骤4-6幼鼠1.5和1.6。 </li><li>小脑，然后放在一个McIlwain组织赵无菌阶段PPER（见表1）。组织切碎通过90 °的旋转舞台，并重复这个过程之前，在375微米的间隔。 </li><li>切碎的小脑被转移到一个胰蛋白酶溶液（溶液T，表4）以前被加热到37 ° C。 </li><li>孵育小脑在37 ° C为20分钟，轻轻搅拌，大约每5分钟。 </li><li>在胰蛋白酶消化，火焰波兰三个无菌玻璃滴管（见表1）使用本生灯火焰。使用火焰创建移液器各自的嘴巴一个罚款孔，一个中等口径和大口径。 </li><li> T溶液中20分钟孵化后，加入20毫升一个胰蛋白酶/ DNA酶抑制剂的解决方案（解决方案瓦，表5）小脑悬浮和沉淀细胞在台式离心机1分钟（见表1）1000 克 。 </li><li>弃上清，重悬在1.5毫升集中胰蛋白酶/ DNA酶抑制剂（溶液C，表6）使用最广泛的孔吸管的细胞沉淀。 </li><li&gt;磨碎使用宽孔吸管的细胞，然后中型孔，最后直到细胞悬液窄孔是均匀的， 这是关键的一步，必须在这个阶段的同质暂停。 </li><li>层的细胞悬液10毫升上一个预热（37℃）牛血清白蛋白补充Earles平衡盐溶液15毫升无菌管（表7）。 </li><li>离心5分钟，暂停在1500 克和悬浮预热MLS 2细胞沉淀（37℃）培养基（表8）。 </li><li>估计使用血球（见表1）细胞数量和细胞悬液稀释到最终密度3.3 × 10 6细胞每毫升。 </li><li>细胞是镀加入75μL的细胞悬液，以D -聚赖氨酸包被盖玻片（最终密度为2.5 × 10 5）的中心。 </li><li> 二氧化碳培养箱含有盖玻片的培养皿放置60分钟，让一个在细胞dhere。 </li><li>每口井照顾，不要打扰镀细胞，并返回到 CO 2培养箱培养板中加入培养基1.5毫升。 </li><li>次日更换新鲜培养与有丝分裂抑制剂阿糖胞苷（表8）培养基中培养液中。 逮捕这种文化中的神经胶质细胞扩散。 </li></ol> 2。实验装置<ol><li>应包括以下基本实验装置（使用特定的设备和软件，见表1和表9）： <ul><li>倒外延荧光显微镜</li><li>冷却CCD相机</li><li>荧光光源（单色或滤光轮） </li><li>重力灌注设备</li><li>与平行的铂电极影像室</li><li>起搏器</li><li>计算机</li><li>图像采集软件</li></ul></li><li>实验应在黑暗中或红色光COND下itions最小样品的荧光照明，以避免调频染料褪色。 </li><li>实验是在室温下进行。如果是必需的生理温度，温度控制灌注系统也可使用。 </li></ol> 3。样品制备<ol><li>文化应采用体外后8-12天。 </li><li>传输一个单一的盖玻片，在室温下10分钟的盐水（表10），以便在新的中期稳定。 </li><li>取出盖玻片，干其底面和周边地区的小块用纸巾或吸水纸贴壁细胞。 </li><li>使用硅脂（见表2），胶水盖玻片成像室的下部。细胞之间应该是两条平行线。应使用足够的硅脂完全密封腔，但没有任何油脂进入中心的洗浴室。 </li><li>轻轻地填补了沐浴室〜260μLSA行的解决方案，然后填写相同的解决方案输入管。 </li><li>清洁盖玻片室顶部与硅脂胶密封。输入和输出管道可用于被困在会议厅内，以消除任何空气气泡。 重要的是，气泡不中断电路 。 </li><li> Immobilise在不锈钢平台的成像室，轻轻灌注生理盐水溶液通过输入管泄漏检查。 </li><li>山倒置显微镜阶段的组装室，和重力灌注系统连接室，先催芽与盐溶液的入口。 </li><li>连接电刺激室的电线连接。 </li><li>添加浸油下降的目标，如果使用油镜头。在使用亮场照明分中焦点细胞。 </li></ol> 4。 S1期<ol><li>灌注神经元与1.5毫升盐水稀释调频染料（见表2）。 </li><li>使用的附加刺激，刺激神经元，以唤起染率。 </li><li>刺激后，2分钟，用新鲜盐水灌注神经元，洗去多余的染料调频（流量为7毫升/分钟）。CGN文化系统中的胶质污染低于 5％14，因此这段时间内是足以消除染料。 </li><li>保留神经元休息8分钟。 </li><li>在此期间，找到个人FM染料加载神经末梢可见荧光波长（激发，480 nm处，发射，550 nm处）的轴突网络。避免细胞群的地区。保持照明至少在这一步，因为强烈的激励可以导致染料的光毒性。 这种明显的迹象是出泡轴突和缺乏的染料卸载（由于染料固色）。 </li><li>立即重新聚焦图像，图像采集前，因为有轻微的漂移可能都发生在休息时间。 </李&gt; <li>开始时间推移，每4秒1帧的速度图像采集</li><li>获取5 - 10个基准图像后，唤起人们提供2秒（60个动作电位）8 30赫兹刺激的胞吐的定价手动立即开始帧捕获后的刺激。 </li><li>后获得另外10张图像，唤起对RP的SV胞吐为10秒（400个动作电位）40赫兹的刺激，每30 秒 ，除了8。 </li><li>获得另外5 - 10图像，然后暂停图像采集。 </li></ol> 5。恢复阶段（见图2） <ol><li>允许的神经细胞恢复至少20分钟。 </li><li> 可选 -如果一种药物的内吞作用的影响进行测试，与药物溶液灌注神经元在此期间（图2b）3,8 。 </li></ol> 6。 S2期<ol><li>重复使用相同的视野，为控制实验S1阶段协议（第4）在S1。 </li><li> 可选 -如果一种药物的内吞作用的影响进行测试，灌注辅以FM染料（图2b）3,8的药物溶液中的神经元。 </li><li> 可选 -胞吐作用的药物的影响，或者，如果感兴趣的是，与药物溶液灌注神经元的定价和RP的装卸刺激（图2c）3之前和期间。 </li></ol> 7。数据分析<ol><li>使用ImageJ和Microsoft Excel或类似的软件进行数据分析。 </li><li>在堆栈格式的图像序列进行分析，是必需的。一些图像处理软件可导出为单个图像序列。如果是这样的情况下，转换图像堆栈使用一个ImageJ内置函数图像&gt;书库&gt;图片堆叠。 </li><li>堆栈调整亮度和对比度，以最大限度地提高动态范围图像&gt;调整&gt;亮度/对比度 （图3a） 。 </li><li>如果发生在T显著横向漂移他的实验， 运行 StackReg <a href="http://bigwww.epfl.ch/thevenaz/stackreg/">（</a> http://bigwww.epfl.ch/thevenaz/stackreg/） 和 TurboReg <a href="http://bigwww.epfl.ch/thevenaz/turboreg/">（</a> http://bigwww.epfl.ch/thevenaz/turboreg/）ImageJ插件对齐图像堆栈（图3b ） 。 </li><li>运行时间系列分析仪插件（ <a href="http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/plugins/time-series.html">http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/plugins/time-series.html</a> ）（图3c）。 </li><li>定义了至少90神经末梢地区的利益（投资回报）​​。这些应该是相同的（直径为1.5微米的圆形的ROI）是有帮助的图像之间的切换前后染料装卸透露积极的神经末梢（或者一个预刺激的图像可以从刺激后的图像中减去）一个理想的投资回报率的大小是一个比一个典型的神经终端 （图3c） 大 。 </li><li>获得每个ROI /综合荧光强度超过添E和导出到Microsoft Excel（图3d和4a）。 </li><li> Normalise的投资回报率的痕迹相同的任意值调整为先卸载在S1和S2两个阶段的刺激（图4B - C）在Y轴的平面的痕迹，这是为了控制背景荧光强度的微小变化。 </li><li>测量荧光的绝对减少，在S1和S2如下（图4d）的任意荧光单位的每个装卸刺激诱发： <ul><li>定价=荧光变化（ΔF）30赫兹2秒触发</li><li> RP =ΔF萨姆3 × 40赫兹10秒触发</li><li>总回收池=定价+ RP </li></ul></li><li>对于每个在7.9的相关参数，计算平均值，一次实验中所有的神经末梢。 </li><li>进行统计分析，意味着可以从多个独立的实验中获得的值平均。而不是数量的神经末梢盖玻片应作为STATISTICA升北路</li></ol> 8。代表性的成果： 一个对照实验，其中CGNS经历了两轮相同的装卸步骤是在图5表示。当开始了一系列的实验，它是必不可少的，像这样的控制实验是每天执行确认S1和S2前不同实验条件下，在S2的相媲美。 在这个例子中，装有10微米使用80赫兹10秒刺激（图5a）FM1 -​​ 43 CGNS。图5b显示FM1 -​​ 43 -加载的神经，以荧光灯puncta为代表的终端。投资回报率超过90神经末梢定义在图5c所示。用于S1和S2的投资回报率相同。在这两种卸载，定价是先卸载30赫兹（2）反相卸载连续3 40Hz的刺激（10）（图5a）刺激。在每个刺激的荧光下降可以清楚地观察和量化（图5d - E）。<html>检查时，相应的定价荧光滴，RP和总回收池S1和S2相媲美。此外，回收状态变量的20％居住在的定价，而80％的RP居住在S1和S2。 <img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/3143/3143fig1.jpg" /> 图1一个典型的FM实验示意图 。一）SV的内吞作用是触发FM染料（绿色表示）的存在。染料是内陷膜（单颗或批量内涵体）。乙）非内在质膜上的染料灌注冲走。 c）在应用程序卸载刺激标记SVS，已成为释放造成损失的荧光与血浆膜的导火索的。四）在荧光（ΔF）发布的标示为状态变量的数量成正比的变化，然后可以量化。 _upload/3143/3143fig2.jpg“/&gt; 图2可能的实验方案的示意图。一）控制实验的细胞进行两个回合调频染料装卸（S1和S2）的流程图。细胞可以加载使用各种不同的刺激。卸载步骤是相同的​​，定价是2秒与30赫兹卸载的反相其次卸载使用第10号第3次40赫兹定价和储备库装卸刺激相隔40秒，所有其他的刺激，30秒。左细胞恢复为S1和S2之间的20分钟。流程图可能修改测试效果为B的一种物质）的内吞作用或C​​）胞吐也显示。相应的测试药物可以灌注在所示期间进入会议厅。 <img alt="图3" src="/files/ftp_upload/3143/3143fig3.jpg" /> 显示图像J的数据分析图3截图截图一）亮度和对比度调整，二）帧对齐，C）的投资回报的选择，和D）强度值的提取，使用图像研究<img alt="图4" src="/files/ftp_upload/3143/3143fig4.jpg" /> 在Microsoft Excel中的数据分析图4截图 。截图一）导入图像J（ 第一列的原始数据显示，车架号，其余各列数据，从个人的神经末梢B））S1的基准值（10帧）为任意值（ 200）调整开始第一个刺激，三）调整S2基准值55帧，使用相同的协议，到S1，和D）测量使用Microsoft Excel的荧光滴。请注意，在D所示的平均跟踪是用来定义时间点前后每下降。每个ROI的荧光滴的大小应确定在C所示的电子表格上的值<img alt="图5" srC =“/ files/ftp_upload/3143/3143fig5.jpg”/&gt; 图5。代表控制实验。一）CGNS被载入10μMFM1 -​​ 43使用80赫兹（10秒）刺激的对照实验流程图。 S1和S2阶段是相同的。定价和储备库装卸刺激相隔40秒，所有其他的刺激，30秒。 b）在图像显示神经末梢加载FM1 -​​ 43。三）与B相同的图像显示90编号的投资回报进行分析选择。 d）在选定的时间点在B红色框描绘一个地区的图片。前基底=刺激; 30赫兹= =后每40赫兹10秒刺激后，30赫兹2秒的刺激; 40赫兹1,2,3。这些图像中伪荧光的变化来说明（频谱显示在右边栏）。 E）平均± SEM跟踪从90 C.个人刺激神经描绘终端获得单杠代表。比例尺= 10微米。

<ol>
	<li>Rizzoli, S. O., Betz, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+vesicle+pools.">Synaptic vesicle pools.</a> Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6, 57-69 (2005).</li><li>Sudhof, T. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+synaptic+vesicle+cycle+revisited.">The synaptic vesicle cycle revisited.</a> Neuron. 28, 317-320 (2000).</li><li>Evans, G. J., Cousin, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activity-dependent+control+of+slow+synaptic+vesicle+endocytosis+by+cyclin-dependent+kinase+5.">Activity-dependent control of slow synaptic vesicle endocytosis by cyclin-dependent kinase 5.</a> J. Neurosci. 27, 401-411 (2007).</li><li>Clayton, E. L., Cousin, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+labelling+of+bulk+endocytosis+in+nerve+terminals+by+FM+dyes.">Differential labelling of bulk endocytosis in nerve terminals by FM dyes.</a> Neurochem. Int. 53, 51-55 (2008).</li><li>Clayton, E. L., Evans, G. J., Cousin, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bulk+synaptic+vesicle+endocytosis+is+rapidly+triggered+during+strong+stimulation.">Bulk synaptic vesicle endocytosis is rapidly triggered during strong stimulation.</a> J. Neurosci. 28, 6627-6632 (2008).</li><li>Cousin, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+FM1-43+and+other+derivatives+to+investigate+neuronal+function.">Use of FM1-43 and other derivatives to investigate neuronal function.</a> Curr. Protoc. Neurosci. Chapter 2, Unit 2-Unit 2 (2008).</li><li>Clayton, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+phospho-dependent+dynamin-syndapin+interaction+triggers+activity-dependent+bulk+endocytosis+of+synaptic+vesicles.">The phospho-dependent dynamin-syndapin interaction triggers activity-dependent bulk endocytosis of synaptic vesicles.</a> J. Neurosci. 29, 7706-7717 (2009).</li><li>Cheung, G., Jupp, O. J., Cousin, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activity-dependent+bulk+endocytosis+and+clathrin-dependent+endocytosis+replenish+specific+synaptic+vesicle+pools+in+central+nerve+terminals.">Activity-dependent bulk endocytosis and clathrin-dependent endocytosis replenish specific synaptic vesicle pools in central nerve terminals.</a> J. Neurosci. 30, 8151-8161 (2010).</li><li>Betz, W. J., Mao, F., Smith, C. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+exocytosis+and+endocytosis.">Imaging exocytosis and endocytosis.</a> Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6, 365-371 (1996).</li><li>Ryan, T. A., Reuter, H., Smith, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+detection+of+a+quantal+presynaptic+membrane+turnover.">Optical detection of a quantal presynaptic membrane turnover.</a> Nature. 388, 478-482 (1997).</li><li>Murthy, V. N., Sejnowski, T. J., Stevens, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterogeneous+release+properties+of+visualized+individual+hippocampal+synapses.">Heterogeneous release properties of visualized individual hippocampal synapses.</a> Neuron. 18, 599-612 (1997).</li><li>Tan, T. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cdk5+is+essential+for+synaptic+vesicle+endocytosis.">Cdk5 is essential for synaptic vesicle endocytosis.</a> Nat. Cell. Biol. 5, 701-710 (2003).</li><li>Anggono, V., Cousin, M. A., Robinson, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Styryl+dye-based+synaptic+vesicle+recycling+assay+in+cultured+cerebellar+granule+neurons.">Styryl dye-based synaptic vesicle recycling assay in cultured cerebellar granule neurons.</a> Methods. Mol. Biol. 457, 333-345 (2008).</li><li>Gallo, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+release+of+glutamate+from+cerebellar+granule+cells+differentiating+in+culture.">Selective release of glutamate from cerebellar granule cells differentiating in culture.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 79, 7919-7923 (1982).</li><li>Stevens, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurotransmitter+release+at+central+synapses.">Neurotransmitter release at central synapses.</a> Neuron. 40, 381-388 (2003).</li><li>Mozhayeva, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+vesicle+pools+during+maturation+of+hippocampal+synapses.">Development of vesicle pools during maturation of hippocampal synapses.</a> J. Neurosci. 22, 654-665 (2002).</li><li>Cousin, M. A., Evans, G. J. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+silent+and+weak+synapses+by+cAMP-dependent+protein+kinase+in+cultured+cerebellar+granule+neurons.">Activation of silent and weak synapses by cAMP-dependent protein kinase in cultured cerebellar granule neurons.</a> J. Physiol. 589, 1943-1955 (2011).</li><li>Kim, S. H., Ryan, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+vesicle+recycling+at+CNS+synapses+without+AP-2.">Synaptic vesicle recycling at CNS synapses without AP-2.</a> J. Neurosci. 29, 3865-3874 (2009).</li><li>Kim, S. H., Ryan, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cdk5+serves+as+a+major+control+point+in+neurotransmitter+release.">Cdk5 serves as a major control point in neurotransmitter release.</a> Neuron. 67, 797-809 (2010).</li><li>Groemer, T. W., Klingauf, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+vesicles+recycling+spontaneously+and+during+activity+belong+to+the+same+pool.">Synaptic vesicles recycling spontaneously and during activity belong to the same pool.</a> Nat. Neurosci. 10, 145-147 (2007).</li></ol>

我们什么都没有透露。

调频染料被广泛用于研究在许多神经制剂的神经末梢功能。他们已受聘主要监察或SV的内吞作用，的SV营业额或胞吐 6动力学的程度。所描述的协议扩展了这些研究，探讨差卸载特定的SV池。这提供额外的信息有关的SV池的补水和他们的动员程度。 调频染料可用于多轮的SV回收范围内的标签相同的神经末梢。我们利用此属性和设计，其中SV在每一个终端的营业额可在同一神经末梢两次监测的协议。这提供了一个准确的内部控制，这是必不可少的，由于异质性的SV回收并行神经末梢11。通过使用作为内部控制的S1阶段，加气站的定价，RP和总SV药物池，可以比较可靠和直接。 除了提供回收的绝对大小的信息，定价和RP池不同的刺激条件下，该协议还可以提供下列资料 - 1）之间的定价和RP的状态变量作为一个回收池的功能分区S1和S2，2）总S1回收池和3）任何定义S2在S1相同的池功能的SV池的相对大小的功能（定价和RP）的S2池的相对大小。这种特殊的协议不会提供有关卸载动力学的信息不过，因为采集时间太慢（动能测量的采集时间应尽可能和卸载自动同步图像采集快速）。 我们30赫兹2秒的刺激唤起定价相同程度装卸高渗蔗糖8。由于定价的大小是由高渗蔗糖卸载15定义，我们可以这个协议卸载所有定价状态变量，在16个海马神经元的研究协议。储备库3 400刺激（40赫兹10秒），因为这刺激卸载相同的染料量范式（2 50毫米氯化钾刺激），耗尽所有染料标记的状态变量的95％的列车几乎完全耗尽8,17。准确的定量定价和储备库的大小还依赖于线性CCD相机的动态范围内获得的信息。 这个简单的协议，也可以进一步修改。装货刺激的强度，也可以是多种多样的，以确定神经元的活动和不同的内吞作用模式影响SV池补水。此外，也可以进行装卸大于两个周期，如果需要的话。此协议也可使用或者过度表达或转染细胞shRNA的载体。由于转染效率低的初级神经元文化，表达的蛋白质必须与荧光蛋白标记。它是必不可少的，这些荧光标记不与染料的调频信号干扰（例如，使用青色或红蛋白）。在这种情况下，在相同的视野转染和未转染细胞的神经末梢，也可以作为一个额外的控制8相比。在这种实验中的S1和S2之间的负载加载程度的比较是没有什么价值，因为目前在两个负载扰动。 SV池之间的染料分区仍然可以进行可视化不过 8 。 遗传记者称为pHluorins也可以监测初级神经元文化的SV胞吐和内吞作用。这些探头使用pH敏感的绿色荧光蛋白的管腔域的标签，如鞋面，突触和 VGLUT1 18的SV蛋白的pH值环境</suP&gt;水泡ATP酶抑制剂一起使用时，pHluorins报告SV池动员19动力学和程度。调频染料为基础的方法这里描述在pHluorin技术的一些优点，首先，调频染料提供信息SV内吞作用模式的补充定价和储备池 8 。其次具体SV池可与具有不同的光谱特性的 20年，最后没有要求转FM染料标记。不能提供调频染料之间的休息，但是回收的SV池（对比pHluorins 19）的SV交通信息，自定义状态变量与染料期间加载的内吞作用是可见的。因此FM染料和pHluorins的长处和短处，并在独立实验中使用，以解决同样的问题时，是最强大的。 高品质的图像是必不可少的有效的分析和reproducib乐的结果。虽然可以很容易地纠正横向漂移，那里是一个在Z轴漂移的实验无法恢复。出于这个原因，重要的是重新集中开始前S1和S2卸载的图像。时发生的情况下，一个显著的荧光衰变，衰变更正可应用于（通常是由减去先前记录的跟踪，从FM加载细胞刺激的情况下）。然而，这是建议，图形表示和不被用于任何定量分析进行衰减校正。

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th></tr><tr><td> AxioCam MRM牧师3数码相机</td><td>卡尔蔡司</td><td> 4265099901000 </td></tr><tr><td> Axio上Observer.A1显微镜</td><td>卡尔蔡司</td><td> 43100.4亿</td></tr><tr><td>细胞培养板（6井） </td><td>格雷纳生物一</td><td> 657160 </td></tr><tr><td>离心机（32R环球） </td><td>海蒂诗Zentrifugen </td><td> 1610 </td></tr><tr><td> 二氧化碳培养箱</td><td>贺利氏仪器</td><td> 51014042 </td></tr><tr><td>猎鹰管（15/50毫升） </td><td>格雷纳生物一</td><td>二十一万○二百六十一分之一十八万八千二百七十一</td></tr><tr><td> Fluar 20X / 0.75∞/ 0.17目标</td><td>卡尔蔡司</td><td> 4401459901000 </td></tr><tr><td>盖玻片（Ø25mm） </td><td> VWR International的</td><td> 631-1584 </td></tr><tr><td>玻璃巴氏吸管（230纳米） </td><td>格雷纳生物一</td><td> 612-1799 </td></tr><tr><td>血球</td><td> VWR </td><td> 15170-170 </td></tr><tr><td>影像室</td><td>华纳</td><td> RC - 21行为风险因素调查</td></tr><tr><td>层流罩</td><td>百得</td><td> VLF的行李处理系统1200 </td></tr><tr><td> McIlwain组织砍刀</td><td>很多的实验室工程有限公司</td><td> MTC / 2 </td></tr><tr><td>汞灯</td><td>卡尔蔡司</td><td> HBO的103 </td></tr><tr><td> MultiStim系统电刺激（100mV时，时脉宽度为1ms） </td><td> Digitimer有限公司</td><td> D330 </td></tr><tr><td>灌注泵</td><td>沃森的马洛</td><td> 313S </td></tr><tr><td>血清移液器（25年5月10日毫升） </td><td>格雷纳生物一</td><td> 606180/607180/760180 </td></tr><tr><td>快门控制器</td><td>卡尔蔡司</td><td> MAC5000 </td></tr><tr><td>注射器（20毫升） </td><td>屋宇署Plastipak </td><td> ST01 - B002 </td></tr><tr><td>注射式过滤器（Minisart - 0.20微米） </td><td>赛多利斯Stedim </td><td> 16532 </td></tr><tr><td> VC - 6六通道阀门控制器</td><td>华纳</td><td> 64-0135 </td></tr><tr><td> YFP的FilteR SET（设置46） </td><td>卡尔蔡司</td><td> 1196-681 </td></tr></tbody></table>表1。使用特殊设备和仪器<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th><th>集中</th></tr><tr><td> FM1 -​​ 43 </td><td>剑桥生物科学</td><td> BT70021 </td><td> 10μM </td></tr><tr><td> FM2 - 10 </td><td>剑桥生物科学</td><td> BT70044 </td><td> 100μM </td></tr><tr><td>聚D -赖氨酸</td><td>西格玛</td><td> P7886 </td><td> 15微克/毫升</td></tr><tr><td>硅脂</td><td>西格玛</td><td> 85403 </td><td align="center"> - </td></tr></tbody></table>表2。使用特定试剂<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th><th>集中</th></tr><tr><td>牛血清白蛋白（BSA） </td><td>西格玛</td><td> A4503 </td><td> 0.3％ </td></tr><tr><td> D -葡萄糖</td><td>西格玛</td><td> G5767 </td><td> 0.25％ </td></tr><tr><td>镁以SO 4 · 7H 2 O </td><td>西格玛</td><td> M2773 </td><td> 1.5毫米</td></tr><tr><td> D - PBS </td><td> Gibco公司</td><td> 21300 </td><td> 960毫克毫升</td></tr></tbody></table> - 使百毫升每个准备新鲜 使用前无菌过滤器表3。溶液B中广核准备<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th><th>集中</th></tr><tr><td>解决方案B </td><td align="center"> - </td><td align="center"> - </td><td> 19日毫升</td></tr><tr><td>胰蛋白酶（5毫克/毫升的股票，-20℃） </td><td>西格玛</td><td> T9201 </td><td> 1毫升</td></tr></tbody></table>表4。解决方案T为中广核准备<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th><th>集中</th></tr><tr><td>溶液C </td><td align="center"> - </td><td align="center"> - </td><td> 3.2毫升</td></tr><tr><td>解决方案B </td><td align“中心”&gt; - </td><td align="center"> - </td><td> 16.8毫升</td></tr></tbody></table>表5。解决方案W为中广核准备<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th><th>集中</th></tr><tr><td>脱氧核糖核酸（DNA酶，每0.5毫升股票500的U，-20℃） </td><td>西格玛</td><td> D5025 </td><td> 0.5毫升</td></tr><tr><td>硫酸镁4 · 7H 2 O </td><td>西格玛</td><td> M2773 </td><td> 1.5毫米</td></tr><tr><td>解决方案B </td><td align="center"> - </td><td align="center"> - </td><td> 10毫升</td></tr><tr><td>大豆胰蛋白酶抑制剂（SBTI，每0.5毫升股票，0.5毫克-20℃） </td><td>西格玛</td><td> T9003 </td><td> 0.5毫升</td></tr></tbody></table>表6。溶液C中广核准备<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th><th>集中</th></tr><tr><td>牛血清白蛋白（BSA） </td><td>西格玛</td><td> A4503 </td><td> 4％ </td></tr><tr><td>厄尔的平衡盐溶液（EBSS） </td><td> Gibco公司</td><td> 24010 </td><td> 10毫升</td></tr><tr><td>硫酸镁4 · 7H 2 O </td><td>西格玛</td><td> M2773 </td><td> 3毫米</td></tr></tbody></table>表7。中广核准备EBSS解决方案<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th><th>集中</th></tr><tr><td>胞嘧啶β- D - arabinofuranoside（ARA - C）* </td><td>西格玛</td><td> C1768 </td><td> 10μM </td></tr><tr><td>胎儿牛血清</td><td> Gibco公司</td><td> 10106 </td><td> 10％ </td></tr><tr><td> D -葡萄糖</td><td>西格玛</td><td> G5767 </td><td> 30毫米</td></tr><tr><td> L -谷氨酰胺</td><td>西格玛</td><td> G3126 </td><td> 2毫米</td></tr><tr><td>氯化钾</td><td>西格玛</td><td> P5405 </td><td> 25毫米</td></tr><tr><td>最小的重要媒介（MEM） </td><td> Gibco公司</td><td> 21090 </td><td> 500毫升</td></tr><tr><td> （P）的青霉素/链霉素（S） </td&gt; <td> Gibco公司</td><td> 15140 </td><td> 100 U /毫升（P）100微克/毫升（S） </td></tr></tbody></table> *的Ara - C应添加到中等，从1格起表8。中广核准备的文化传媒<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>版本</th><th>公司</th></tr><tr><td> AxioVision REL。 </td><td> 4.8 </td><td>卡尔蔡司</td></tr><tr><td> ImageJ </td><td> 1.42q </td><td>国家卫生研究院</td></tr><tr><td> Microsoft Excel中</td><td> 2003年</td><td>微软</td></tr></tbody></table>表9。使用特定的计算机软件<table border="1"><tbody><tr><th>名称</th><th>公司</th><th>目录没有。 </th><th>集中</th></tr><tr><td>氯化钙2 · 2H 2 O </td><td>西格玛</td><td> C7902 </td><td> 1.3毫米</td></tr><tr><td>血糖</td><td>西格玛</td><td> G5767 </td><td> 5毫米</td></tr><tr><td>氯化钾</td><td>西格玛</td><td> P5405 </td><td> 3.5毫米</td></tr><tr><td> KH 2 PO 4 </td><td>西格玛</td><td> P9791 </td><td> 0.4毫米</td></tr><tr><td>氯化镁2 · 6H 2 O </td><td>西格玛</td><td> M0250 </td><td> 1.2毫米</td></tr><tr><td>氯化钠</td><td> Fluka公司</td><td> 71378 </td><td> 170毫米</td></tr><tr><td>碳酸氢钠3 </td><td> Fluka公司</td><td> 71627 </td><td> 5毫米</td></tr><tr><td> NA 2 SO 4 </td><td> BDH实验室用品</td><td> 10264 </td><td> 1.2毫米</td></tr><tr><td>工商业污水附加费</td><td>西格玛</td><td> T1375 </td><td> 20毫米</td></tr></tbody></table>表10。盐溶液（pH值7.4）

quantitative analysis of synaptic vesicle pool replenishment in cultured cerebellar granule neurons using fm dyes

在中央神经末梢释放神经递质后，状态变量的内吞作用迅速检索。检索状态变量，然后重新填充的神经递质和归队回收池，作为状态变量定义的胞吐 1,2 。回收池，一般都可以分为两个不同的池 - 易释放池（RRP）和储备池（RP）。顾名思义，定价由是立即融合的状态变量，而RP的状态变量被释放在强烈的刺激 1,2只。重要的是有一个可靠的检测报告这些SV池差增资，以了解1）状态变量通车后不同模式的内吞作用（如网格蛋白依赖的内吞作用和活动依赖大量的内吞作用）和2）的机制如何调动双方的定价和RP控制在不同的刺激的反应。 定期聘请调频染料定量报告中央神经末梢的SV营业额3-8。他们有疏水性烃类尾气的，允许在脂双层的可逆分区，横跨膜和亲水性头组块通过。很少在水溶液中的荧光染料，但在膜 9分区时，其量子产率显着增加。因此，调频染料跟踪积极回收状态变量的理想荧光探针。调频染料使用标准的协议如下。首先，它们是适用于神经元和期间内吞作用（图1）。非内化后的染料从质膜，内回收池回收状态变量重新分配冲走。这些状态变量，然后使用卸载刺激（图1）耗尽。由于调频染料状态变量的标签是量子 10，由此产生的荧光下降释放囊泡数量成正比。因此，状态变量的回收和融合产生的PRevious轮内吞作用，可以可靠地量化。 在这里，我们提出了一个已被修改，以获得两个额外的信息内容的协议。首先，连续装卸刺激差异卸载定价和RP，让量化具体的SV池增资。其次，每一个神经末梢，两次经过协议。因此，在S1相同的神经末梢的反应可以比较一个阶段S2（图2）的测试物质的存在，提供了一个内部​​控制。这一点很重要，因为SV在不同的神经末梢循环再造的程度是高度可变的11。 可能对本协议中使用的任何附着的初级神经元文化，但电镀密度，解决方案和刺激的条件进行了优化小脑颗粒神经元（CGNS ）12,13。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes at JoVE.com

Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

描述一个生活的荧光成像技术，量化的补给和动员特定的突触小泡（SV）池，在中央的神经末梢。两轮的SV回收进行监控，在相同的神经终端提供内部控制。

使用调频染料培养的小脑颗粒神经突触小泡池补充的定量分析

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis.  Retrieved SVs are then refilled with ...

quantitative-analysis-synaptic-vesicle-pool-replenishment-cultured

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

15.0K 次观看.  University of Edinburgh. 描述一个生活的荧光成像技术，量化的补给和动员特定的突触小泡（SV）池，在中央的神经末梢。两轮的SV回收进行监控，在相同的神经终端提供内部控制。

视频: Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

Studying Synaptic Vesicle Pools using Photoconversion of Styryl Dyes

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The vesicles are then retrieved from the plasma membrane (endocytosis) and grouped together with the general pool of vesicles within the nerve terminal, until they undergo a new exo- and endocytosis cycle (vesicle recycling). These processes have been studied using a variety of techniques such as electron microscopy, electrophysiology recordings, amperometry and capacitance measurements. Importantly, during the last two decades a number of fluorescently labeled markers emerged, allowing optical techniques to track vesicles in their recycling dynamics. One of the most commonly used markers is the styryl or FM dye 1; structurally, all FM dyes contain a hydrophilic head and a lipophilic tail connected through an aromatic ring and one or more double bonds (Fig. 1B). A classical FM dye experiment to label a pool of vesicles consists in bathing the preparation (Fig. 1Ai) with the dye during the stimulation of the nerve (electrically or with high K+). This induces vesicle recycling and the subsequent loading of the dye into recently endocytosed vesicles (Fig. 1Ai-iii). After loading the vesicles with dye, a second round of stimulation in a dye-free bath would trigger the FM release through exocytosis (Fig. 1Aiv-v), process that can be followed by monitoring the fluorescence intensity decrease (destaining).

Although FM dyes have contributed greatly to the field of vesicle recycling, it is not possible to determine the exact localization or morphology of individual vesicles by using conventional fluorescence microscopy. For that reason, we explain here how FM dyes can also be used as endocytic markers using electron microscopy, through photoconversion. The photoconversion technique exploits the property of fluorescent dyes to generate reactive oxygen species under intense illumination. Fluorescently labeled preparations are submerged in a solution containing diaminobenzidine (DAB) and illuminated. Reactive species generated by the dye molecules oxidize the DAB, which forms a stable, insoluble precipitate that has a dark appearance and can be easily distinguished in electron microscopy 2,3. As DAB is only oxidized in the immediate vicinity of fluorescent molecules (as the reactive oxygen species are short-lived), the technique ensures that only fluorescently labeled structures are going to contain the electron-dense precipitate. The technique thus allows the study of the exact location and morphology of actively recycling organelles.

FM dyes have been of invaluable help in the understanding of synaptic dynamics. FMs are normally followed under the fluorescent microscope during different stimulation conditions. However, photoconversion of FM dyes combined with electron microscopy allows the visualization of distinct synaptic vesicle pools, among other ultrastructure components, in synaptic boutons.

突触小泡池，利用苯乙烯染料的光转化的研究

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The ...

科研

神经科学

Analysis of Dendritic Spine Morphology in Cultured CNS Neurons

Dendritic spines are the sites of the majority of excitatory connections within the brain, and form the post-synaptic 
compartment of synapses. These structures are rich in actin and have been shown to be highly dynamic. In response to classical Hebbian plasticity 
as well as neuromodulatory signals, dendritic spines can change shape and number, which is thought to be critical for the refinement of neural 
circuits and the processing and storage of information within the brain. Within dendritic spines, a complex network of proteins link extracellular 
signals with the actin cyctoskeleton allowing for control of dendritic spine morphology and number. Neuropathological studies have demonstrated that 
a number of disease states, ranging from schizophrenia to autism spectrum disorders, display abnormal dendritic spine morphology or numbers. 
Moreover, recent genetic studies have identified mutations in numerous genes that encode synaptic proteins, leading to suggestions that these 
proteins may contribute to aberrant spine plasticity that, in part, underlie the pathophysiology of these disorders. In order to study the potential 
role of these proteins in controlling dendritic spine morphologies/number, the use of cultured cortical neurons offers several advantages. Firstly, 
this system allows for high-resolution imaging of dendritic spines in fixed cells as well as time-lapse imaging of live cells. Secondly, this in 
vitro system allows for easy manipulation of protein function by expression of mutant proteins, knockdown by shRNA constructs, or pharmacological 
treatments. These techniques allow researchers to begin to dissect the role of disease-associated proteins and to predict how mutations of these 
proteins may function in vivo.

Numerous recent studies have identified mutations in synaptic proteins associated with brain pathologies. Primary cultured cortical neurons offer great flexibility in examining the effects of these disease-associated proteins on dendritic spine morphology and motility.

在培养的中枢神经系统的神经元树突棘形态分析

Dendritic spines are the sites of the majority of excitatory connections within the brain, and form the post-synaptic 
compartment of synapses. These ...

Lateral Diffusion and Exocytosis of Membrane Proteins in Cultured Neurons Assessed using Fluorescence Recovery and Fluorescence-loss Photobleaching

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This directed trafficking is of fundamental importance to deliver, maintain or remove synaptic proteins.
Super-ecliptic pHluorin (SEP) is a pH-sensitive derivative of eGFP that has been extensively used for live cell imaging of plasma membrane proteins1-2. At low pH, protonation of SEP decreases photon absorption and eliminates fluorescence emission. As most intracellular trafficking events occur in compartments with low pH, where SEP fluorescence is eclipsed, the fluorescence signal from SEP-tagged proteins is predominantly from the plasma membrane where the SEP is exposed to a neutral pH extracellular environment. When illuminated at high intensity SEP, like every fluorescent dye, is irreversibly photodamaged (photobleached)3-5. Importantly, because low pH quenches photon absorption, only surface expressed SEP can be photobleached whereas intracellular SEP is unaffected by the high intensity illumination6-10. 
FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) of SEP-tagged proteins is a convenient and powerful technique for assessing protein dynamics at the plasma membrane. When fluorescently tagged proteins are photobleached in a region of interest (ROI) the recovery in fluorescence occurs due to the movement of unbleached SEP-tagged proteins into the bleached region. This can occur via lateral diffusion and/or from exocytosis of non-photobleached receptors supplied either by de novo synthesis or recycling (see Fig. 1). The fraction of immobile and mobile protein can be determined and the mobility and kinetics of the diffusible fraction can be interrogated under basal and stimulated conditions such as agonist application or neuronal activation stimuli such as NMDA or KCl application8,10. 
We describe photobleaching techniques designed to selectively visualize the recovery of fluorescence attributable to exocytosis. Briefly, an ROI is photobleached once as with standard FRAP protocols, followed, after a brief recovery, by repetitive bleaching of the flanking regions. This 'FRAP-FLIP' protocol, developed in our lab, has been used to characterize AMPA receptor trafficking at dendritic spines10, and is applicable to a wide range of trafficking studies to evaluate the intracellular trafficking and exocytosis.

This report describes the use of live cell imaging and photobleach techniques to determine the surface expression, transport pathways and trafficking kinetics of exogenously expressed, pH-sensitive GFP-tagged proteins at the plasma membrane of neurons.

横向扩散和培养的神经元膜蛋白的胞吐评估使用荧光恢复和荧光损失漂白

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This ...

Extracellularly Identifying Motor Neurons for a Muscle Motor Pool in Aplysia californica

In animals with large identified neurons (e.g. mollusks), analysis of motor pools is done using intracellular techniques1,2,3,4. Recently, we developed a technique to extracellularly stimulate and record individual neurons in Aplysia californica5. We now describe a protocol for using this technique to uniquely identify and characterize motor neurons within a motor pool.
This extracellular technique has advantages. First, extracellular electrodes can stimulate and record neurons through the sheath5, so it does not need to be removed. Thus, neurons will be healthier in extracellular experiments than in intracellular ones. Second, if ganglia are rotated by appropriate pinning of the sheath, extracellular electrodes can access neurons on both sides of the ganglion, which makes it easier and more efficient to identify multiple neurons in the same preparation. Third, extracellular electrodes do not need to penetrate cells, and thus can be easily moved back and forth among neurons, causing less damage to them. This is especially useful when one tries to record multiple neurons during repeating motor patterns that may only persist for minutes. Fourth, extracellular electrodes are more flexible than intracellular ones during muscle movements. Intracellular electrodes may pull out and damage neurons during muscle contractions. In contrast, since extracellular electrodes are gently pressed onto the sheath above neurons, they usually stay above the same neuron during muscle contractions, and thus can be used in more intact preparations.
To uniquely identify motor neurons for a motor pool (in particular, the I1/I3 muscle in Aplysia) using extracellular electrodes, one can use features that do not require intracellular measurements as criteria: soma size and location, axonal projection, and muscle innervation4,6,7. For the particular motor pool used to illustrate the technique, we recorded from buccal nerves 2 and 3 to measure axonal projections, and measured the contraction forces of the I1/I3 muscle to determine the pattern of muscle innervation for the individual motor neurons.
We demonstrate the complete process of first identifying motor neurons using muscle innervation, then characterizing their timing during motor patterns, creating a simplified diagnostic method for rapid identification. The simplified and more rapid diagnostic method is superior for more intact preparations, e.g. in the suspended buccal mass preparation8 or in vivo9. This process can also be applied in other motor pools10,11,12 in Aplysia or in other animal systems2,3,13,14.

Extracellularly Identifying Motor Neurons for a Muscle Motor Pool in Aplysia californica

In animals with large identified neurons (e.g. mollusks), analysis of motor pools is done using intracellular techniques1,2,3,4. Recently, we developed a technique to extracellularly stimulate and record individual neurons in Aplysia californica5. We now describe a protocol for using this technique to uniquely identify and characterize motor neurons within a motor pool.

运动神经元细胞外识别的肌肉运动游泳池<em&gt;海兔夜蛾</em

In animals with large  identified neurons (e.g. mollusks), analysis of motor pools is done using  intracellular techniques1,2,3,4. Recently,  we developed ...

Examination of Synaptic Vesicle Recycling Using FM Dyes During Evoked, Spontaneous, and Miniature Synaptic Activities

Synaptic vesicles in functional nerve terminals undergo exocytosis and endocytosis. This synaptic vesicle recycling can be effectively analyzed using styryl FM dyes, which reveal membrane turnover. Conventional protocols for the use of FM dyes were designed for analyzing neurons following stimulated (evoked) synaptic activity. Recently, protocols have become available for analyzing the FM signals that accompany weaker synaptic activities, such as spontaneous or miniature synaptic events. Analysis of these small changes in FM signals requires that the imaging system is sufficiently sensitive to detect small changes in intensity, yet that artifactual changes of large amplitude are suppressed. Here we describe a protocol that can be applied to evoked, spontaneous, and miniature synaptic activities, and use cultured hippocampal neurons as an example. This protocol also incorporates a means of assessing the rate of photobleaching of FM dyes, as this is a significant source of artifacts when imaging small changes in intensity.

We describe the use of styryl FM dyes to image synaptic vesicle recycling in functional nerve terminals. This protocol can be applied not only to evoked, but also spontaneous and miniature synaptic activities. The protocol expands the variety of synaptic events that can be effectively evaluated.

使用调频染料诱发过程中，自发的，微型突触活动检查突触囊泡循环的

Synaptic vesicles in functional nerve terminals undergo exocytosis and endocytosis. This synaptic vesicle recycling can be effectively analyzed using ...

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow for an in-depth characterization to identify pathways involved in these events. Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) that are derived from the developing cerebellum are an ideal model system that allows for morphological analyses. Here, we describe a method of how to genetically manipulate CGNs and how to study axono- and dendritogenesis of individual neurons. With this method the effects of RNA interference, overexpression or small molecules can be compared to control neurons. In addition, the rodent cerebellar cortex is an easily accessible in vivo system owing to its predominant postnatal development. We also present an in vivo electroporation technique to genetically manipulate the developing cerebella and describe subsequent cerebellar analyses to assess neuronal morphology and migration.

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Neuronal morphogenesis and migration are crucial events underlying proper brain development. Here, we describe methods to genetically manipulate cultured cerebellar granule neurons and the developing cerebellum for the assessment of morphology and migratory characteristics of neurons.

小脑颗粒神经元的遗传操作<em&gt;体外</em&gt;和<em&gt;在体内</em&gt;为研究神经元形态和迁移

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow ...

Ex Vivo Imaging of Postnatal Cerebellar Granule Cell Migration Using Confocal Macroscopy

During postnatal development, immature granule cells (excitatory interneurons) exhibit tangential migration in the external granular layer, and then radial migration in the molecular layer and the Purkinje cell layer to reach the internal granular layer of the cerebellar cortex. Default in migratory processes induces either cell death or misplacement of the neurons, leading to deficits in diverse cerebellar functions. Centripetal granule cell migration involves several mechanisms, such as chemotaxis and extracellular matrix degradation, to guide the cells towards their final position, but the factors that regulate cell migration in each cortical layer are only partially known. In our method, acute cerebellar slices are prepared from P10 rats, granule cells are labeled with a fluorescent cytoplasmic marker and tissues are cultured on membrane inserts from 4 to 10 hr before starting real-time monitoring of cell migration by confocal macroscopy at 37 &#176;C in the presence of CO2. During their migration in the different cortical layers of the cerebellum, granule cells can be exposed to neuropeptide agonists or antagonists, protease inhibitors, blockers of intracellular effectors or even toxic substances such as alcohol or methylmercury to investigate their possible role in the regulation of neuronal migration.

Ex Vivo Imaging of Postnatal Cerebellar Granule Cell Migration Using Confocal Macroscopy

During postnatal cerebellum development, immature granule cells originating from the germinal zone exhibit distinct modalities of migration to reach their final destination and to establish neuronal networks. This protocol describes the preparation of cerebellar slices and the confocal macroscopic approach used to investigate the factors that regulate neuronal migration.

产后的小脑颗粒细胞迁移利用共聚焦肉眼离体成像

During postnatal development, immature granule cells (excitatory interneurons) exhibit tangential migration in the external granular layer, and then ...

Selective Depletion of Microglia from Cerebellar Granule Cell Cultures Using L-leucine Methyl Ester

Microglia, the resident immunocompetent cells of the CNS, play multifaceted roles in modulating and controlling neuronal function, as well as mediating innate immunity. Primary rodent cell culture models have greatly advanced our understanding of neuronal-glial interactions, but only recently have methods to specifically eliminate microglia from mixed cultures been utilized. One such technique &#8211; described here &#8211; is the use of L-leucine methyl ester, a lysomotropic agent that is internalized by macrophages and microglia, wherein it causes lysosomal disruption and subsequent apoptosis13,14. Experiments using L-leucine methyl ester have the power to identify the contribution of microglia to the surrounding cellular environment under diverse culture conditions. Using a protocol optimized in our laboratory, we describe how to eliminate microglia from P5 rodent cerebellar granule cell culture. This approach allows one to assess the relative impact of microglia on experimental data, as well as determine whether microglia are playing a neuroprotective or neurotoxic role in culture models of neurological conditions, such as stroke, Alzheimer&#8217;s or Parkinson&#8217;s disease.

Microglia can influence neurons and other glia in culture by various non-cell autonomous mechanisms. Here, we present a protocol to selectively deplete microglia from primary neuronal cultures. This method has the potential to elucidate the role of microglial-neuronal interactions, with implications for neurodegenerative conditions where neuroinflammation is a hallmark feature.

小胶质细胞的小脑颗粒细胞使用L-亮氨酸甲酯选择性耗尽

Microglia, the resident immunocompetent cells of the CNS, play multifaceted roles in modulating and controlling neuronal function, as well as mediating ...

High-Resolution Quantitative Immunogold Analysis of Membrane Receptors at Retinal Ribbon Synapses

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) receive excitatory glutamatergic input from bipolar cells. Synaptic excitation of RGCs is mediated postsynaptically by NMDA receptors (NMDARs) and AMPA receptors (AMPARs). Physiological data have indicated that glutamate receptors at RGCs are expressed not only in postsynaptic but also in perisynaptic or extrasynaptic membrane compartments. However, precise anatomical locations for glutamate receptors at RGC synapses have not been determined. Although a high-resolution quantitative analysis of glutamate receptors at central synapses is widely employed, this approach has had only limited success in the retina. We developed a postembedding immunogold method for analysis of membrane receptors, making it possible to estimate the number, density and variability of these receptors at retinal ribbon synapses. Here we describe the tools, reagents, and the practical steps that are needed for: 1) successful preparation of retinal fixation, 2) freeze-substitution, 3) postembedding immunogold electron microscope (EM) immunocytochemistry and, 4) quantitative visualization of glutamate receptors at ribbon synapses.

The postembedding immunogold method is one of the most effective ways to provide high-resolution analyses of the subcellular localization of specific molecules. Here we describe a protocol to quantitatively analyze glutamate receptors at retinal ribbon synapses.

高分辨率定量免疫膜受体在视网膜带状突触分析

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) receive excitatory glutamatergic input from bipolar cells. Synaptic excitation of RGCs is mediated postsynaptically by NMDA ...

Assessment of Neuronal Viability Using Fluorescein Diacetate-Propidium Iodide Double Staining in Cerebellar Granule Neuron Culture

Primary cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons (CGNs) have been widely used as an in vitro model in neuroscience and neuropharmacology research. However, the co-existence of glial cells and neurons in CGN culture might lead to biases in the accurate assessment of neuronal viability. Fluorescein diacetate (FDA) and Propidium Iodide (PI) double staining has been used to measure cell viability by simultaneously evaluating the viable and dead cells. We used FDA-PI double staining to improve the sensitivities of the colorimetric assays and to evaluate neuronal viability in CGNs. Furthermore, we added blue fluorescent DNA stains (e.g., Hoechst) to improve the accuracy. This protocol describes how to improve the accuracy of assessment of neuronal viability by using these methods in CGN culture. Using this protocol, the number of glial cells can be excluded by using fluorescence microscopy. A similar strategy can be applied to distinguish the unwanted glial cells from neurons in various mixed cell cultures, such as primary cortical culture and hippocampal culture.

This protocol describes how to accurately measure neuronal viability using Fluorescein diacetate (FDA) and Propidium Iodide (PI) double staining in cultured cerebellar granule neurons, a primary neuronal culture used as an in vitro model in neuroscience and neuropharmacology research.

使用荧光素二乙酸酯 - 碘化丙啶双重染色在小脑颗粒神经元培养中评估神经元活力

Primary cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons (CGNs) have been widely used as an in vitro model in neuroscience and neuropharmacology research. However, the ...