ROBO-AO系统的支持，合作伙伴机构，加州理工学院和大学之间的天文学和天体物理学中心，由美国国家科学基金会的补助金从批准号：AST-0906060，AST-0960343，山。古巴天文基金会和塞缪尔·奥欣的礼物。

1。观察前程序<ol><li>被观察到的天文目标的列表。 </li><li>计算需要对每个目标的总的曝光时间，以达到所需的信号噪声比在每个科学所需的过滤器和照相机组合。 </li><li>发送列表中观察美国战略司令部大于提前3天观测的天文目标。他们会发回一个预测避免消息（PAM）表示“开放的窗口” - 时代没有潜在的危害卫星安全使用的激光系统对每个请求的目标。 </li><li>望远镜上安装的Robo-AO系统在白天，如果不是已经完成（ 如 ROBO-AO P60的1.5米望远镜在帕洛马天文台，CA， 图2）。 </li><li>翻译的第一折叠镜，以显示内部望远镜和源模拟器激光波前传感器，并且打开的模拟激光源上。&lt;/ P&gt; <li>记录模拟的激光的位置上的图像的波前传感相机。这些位置被用作参考坡夏克 - 哈特曼传感器测量，将被减去从以下的天空测量。此过程校准仪器校准因温度变化小的光学变化。 </li><li>第一折叠镜返回到其原始位置，并关闭模拟的激光源。 </li><li>美国战略司令部前一小时观察，告知他们晚上的计划开展的活动，并收到任何更新或更改的PAM联系。 </li><li>转动10-W的紫外激光，对同时离开冗余快门关闭。内的激光二极管泵浦的液体冷却系统的温度调节，并需要大约一个小时来稳定。 </li><li>检查在安全情况下打开的望远镜圆顶，一旦有足够暗观察。这包括安全范围内湿度，露点抑郁症，降水，风速，空气中的颗粒。 </li><li>打开的的望远镜圆顶和指向一个相对明亮的恒星（ 米 V≤5）的开销。 </li><li>重新审视望远镜，望远镜的副镜的明星，直到在近似对焦（最小的图像宽度）的定位。手动估计从实时图像从一个科学相机是足够的。 </li></ol> 2。高阶自适应光学校正<ol><li>挑选一个天文数字的目标，有一个足够长的“开放窗口”的PAM。 </li><li>设置闹钟的“开放窗口”的缓冲区至少1分钟。在观测过程中，如果在闹钟响起，立即快门的激光。 </li><li>点的望远镜对选定的天文目标。构图的科学相机领域的视图对象（S）调整望远镜指向必要的。 </li><li>确认激光上行小费倾斜镜的中心在其范围内，开放内部和冗余激光百叶窗之前-在天空中传播的激光（ 图2）。 </li><li>从波前传感器的摄像头，约1200个帧中的第二个数据记录，而普克尔盒的光闸被关闭。 </li><li>计算从这个数据的中位数的图像。这将被用来作为一个背景帧减去从由波前传感器的摄像头捕获的图像中的任何电气或光学偏置。 </li><li>转动普克尔盒触发系统，使得从10公里的激光脉冲被发送到波前传感器上。 </li><li>螺旋搜索的上行头倾斜镜的激光图像，直到夏克-哈特曼模式出现在波前传感器的摄像头（ 图4B）。离开的上行端倾斜镜的位置。 </li><li>录制新的波前传感器的背景图像，同时普克尔盒瞬间变成ØFF。这是必要的，作为光稍微作为激光的背景的变化，是指在不同的方向，由上行链路的前端倾斜镜。 </li><li>开始的高阶自适应光学系统。在这一点上，两个控制循环开始同时每个图像创建的激光通过波前传感器的小透镜阵列的位置是用来驱动可变形反射镜致动器压平进入望远镜的非平面光波才传播到科学摄像机。也被用来指挥上行链路的前端倾斜镜，以保持对中的波前传感器上的图案的激光图像的位置测量值的加权平均。 </li></ol> 3。观察可见（事后登记校正） <ol><li>设置的滤光轮所需的观察过滤器（）的位置。 </li><li>设置大气残留棱柱分散体上最小化的角度，例如ADC的棱镜科学仪器。 </li><li>设置使得有最小帧传输帧速率〜10赫兹，30赫兹优选EMCCD相机的曝光时间和帧大小。捕获的数据以这样的速率通常会降低至低于受衍射限制的角分辨率的帧内曝光图像的运动。 </li><li>设置电子倍增增益EMCCD相机使得目标​​的最大强度是大约一半阱深度的检测器或在最大值为300的较暗的目标上。 </li><li>对于微弱的目标，那些恒星幅度大致大于15，减缓EMCCD相机的帧速率，直到至少有〜5-10光子被检测的图像的点扩散函数在核心。虽然这导致额外的图像运动模糊内帧和减少角分辨率（ 例如，文献40;大约两倍的衍射限制的分辨率对M R〜16.5たrgets），需要几个核心的光子进行适当的事后登记处理。 </li><li>一组连续的EMCCD相机的图像记录，直到完全集成的曝光时间等于时间在1.2计算。 </li></ol> 4。在红外观察（可见的提示倾斜校正） <ol><li> EMCCD相机前面的滤光轮设置一个宽带滤波器， 即一个明确的滤波器或λ&gt; 600nm的长通滤光片。 </li><li>注意EMCCD相机的前端倾斜导向源被用来作为在实时图像，同时寻找的对象的像素位置。 </li><li>设置相机读出设定为下列值：纸槽像素由一个因子4，并设置的帧传输的子帧的读出区域是一个总的离散化的2×2的像素围绕先前指出的位置上。 </li><li> EMCCD相机的帧速率和电子倍增增益设置的前端倾斜的亮度相匹配引导源。优选为300Hz的帧速率（〜30赫兹带宽的控制环路的校正），但也可以在低质量的前端倾斜校正的成本降低，所需的暗淡的天体。 </li><li>开始的尖端倾斜控制环路。这将计算出的电流导向源位置和命令的快速尖倾斜校正反射镜，以驱动其的离散化的像素区域的中心位置。 </li><li>红外摄像机的图像记录，直到完全集成的曝光时间等于计算的时间在1.2。最大单个帧的曝光时间将被限制只能由从红外发射饱和，从天空，仪器或对象，或通过从红外线阵列暗电流。风险的范围可以从几分之一秒到几分钟。 </li></ol> 5。夜程序结束<ol><li>关闭的望远镜圆顶和点的平面望远镜观测时是完整的。 </li><li>将激光关闭美国战略司令部在15分钟内的夜间活动的总结。 </li><li>打开的圆顶平面灯。 </li><li>记录一系列的全帧图像上的EMCCD和圆顶扁平状的灯上的平面前述的夜晚期间使用为每个天文滤波器所产生的平场照明的红外摄像机。在每个像素处的平场强度表示的组合的相对量子效率的望远镜，自适应光学系统，过滤器和照相机。 </li><li>关闭圆顶平面灯关闭，并切换到阻塞过滤器在每个镜头前。 </li><li>记录了一系列在两个相机相对应的范围内的曝光时间和图像格式记录在前述夜的暗图像。暗帧用于去除由于暗电流和电子噪音从记录的数据偏差。 </li><li>园内的望远镜。 </li></ol> 6。处理图像<ol><li>建立一个单一的黑暗çalibration图像的每一个黑暗的影像系列录得5.6的中位数）。 </li><li>通过计算每个平场图像系列记录在5.4）的中位数，减去相应的暗校准图像，然后通过在帧中的像素值中位数除以整个图像，每个摄像机的每个过滤器创建一个平场校准图像。 </li><li>每个天空的科学EMCCD和红外摄像机拍摄的图像从平场校正图像中减去相应的的黑暗校准图像和除法。 </li><li>中心从每个观测的科学图像校准调整最亮像素和添加图像，共同创造一个重叠影像。更复杂的例程，也可用于改进的图像登记39,41。 </li></ol>

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作者宣称没有竞争的金融利益。

这里介绍的方法描述机器人AO激光自适应光学系统的手动操作。在实践中，机器人AO以自动化的方式操作;绝大多数的程序所控制的机器人的序列发生器，它自动执行相同的步骤。 ROBO-AO系统已经被设计为简单的复制，以温和的代价，与的材料（USD600K）和劳动，即使是1.5米望远镜的成本的一小部分。大约有20个世界各地的直径大于5米的光学望远镜，天文望远镜，预计在1-3米类数量远远超过一百年潜在的主机ROBO-AO克隆。在除了当前系统部署在P60的1.5米望远镜，希望很多克隆首先是正在开发的IGO望远镜2米42 ​​在马哈拉施特拉邦，印度，和一个变种，使用明亮的恒星，而不是一个激光波前探测是是C在1米望远镜办法第十四条桌山，CA 43。衍射极限的科学的一场革命可能就在眼前。

大气湍流对天文成像的影响被首次发现世纪前由惠更斯和牛顿5。在20世纪50年代，最初的概念自适应光学系统设计，以弥补动荡的影响发表了独立，霍勒斯·巴布科克6和弗拉基米尔·林尼克7。美国国防部资助的第一个自适应光学系统的发展在20世纪70年代冷战时期的8颗外国卫星成像的目的。平民天文学界取得了进展开发系统，但在20世纪80年代后解密的军事研究自适应光学技术在1992年（注释9），有爆炸的数量和复杂性都在天文系统10。 与孔大于5米约第二十的可见光和红外线的望远镜今天的大部分已配备D自适应光学系统（ 例如文献11-19）。随着望远镜越来越大，从而更能够收集光，有更大的收益时使用自适应光学分辨率和灵敏度。不幸的是，大望远镜的自适应光学系统是非常复杂的，并在其经营的限制，近红外波段，由于目前的技术，他们需要的技术支持人员的团队，经常用较大的观察间接费用，这些稀缺和宝贵的资源也有限的。 的大小光谱的另一端，有超过一百年在1-3米级的望远镜，但很少，这些都配有自适应光学系统。校正大气湍流，即使在较短的可见光波长，通过大气湍流的一个更小的体积（ 图1），因为它们看起来变得易于处理与目前的技 ​​术对这些较小的望远镜。湍流-的总量EP3受体激动剂诱导光学错误尺度的比例与望远镜主​​镜直径成反比的观测波长。可以使用相同的自适应光学系统的技术，用于用近红外光上的更大的望远镜，用可见光对中等大小的望远镜。此外，这种规模的许多望远镜是被改造的（ 如文献20）或新建成完全的机器人，远程和/或自主能力（ 如文献21），显着地提高这些设施的成本效益。如果配备了自适应光学系统，这些望远镜提供了一个强大的平台，以追求天文科学的许多领域，是不切实际或不可能的，否则大望远镜的自适应光学系统22。衍射有限的几十万人的目标23,24，长期监测25,26和快速的瞬态特性有针对性的调查，在拥挤的领域27，都是有可能的自适应光学系统对这些温和的孔。 为了探讨这一新发现的空间，我们已经设计并实施新的经济自适应光学系统为1-3米级望远镜，ROBO-AO（参考文献2,3， 图2）。至于与其他激光自适应光学系统，机器人-AO包括几个主要系统：激光系统;一套电子和一个仪器安装在望远镜的卡塞格伦焦点（后面的主镜; 图3），容纳一个高速快门光学，波前传感器，波前校正器，科学仪器和校准源。 ROBO-AO设计中所描述的说明了一个典型的激光自适应光学系统是如何在实践中运作。 机器人AO激光系统的核心是一个Q开关10-W紫外激光器安装在一个封闭的投影机组件侧上的望​​远镜。用激光，激光本身起投影机然后采用一个冗余的快门，除了激光的内部快门，额外的安全性;一个半波板来调整投影的线性偏振的角度;和一个上行链路小费-倾斜反射镜到两个稳定的明显的激光光束的位置在天空并校正望远镜挠曲。甲双凸透镜上一个可调聚焦阶段扩大的激光束，以填补一个15厘米输出光圈镜头，这是光学共轭的前端倾斜镜。的输出透镜聚焦的激光线的视线距离为10公里。由于激光脉冲（〜35 ns的长每隔100μs）通过大气传播距离投影机，瑞利散射的光子对望远镜（ 图2B）关闭空气分子和回报的一小部分。返回的散射光子源自沿向上的整个路径的激光，否则将出现的条纹，它们将使得波阵面的测量不精确。内的自适应光学INSTrument，一个高速普克尔盒光学快门28被用于传输激光光只从仅有一个狭窄的切片周围的气氛的10公里的投影焦点返回，导致在激光作为光点出现。普克尔盒的切换是由相同的主时钟驱动作为脉冲激光，通过大气中的激光脉冲的往返时间，考虑到延迟。最终，大约只有通过波前传感器检测到在每万亿光子推出的。即便如此，这是辐射通量足以操作的自适应光学系统。 的紫外线激光器具有额外的好处，即对人眼的，主要是由于在角膜和透镜29的吸收看不见。因此，它是无法闪光盲的飞行员，被认为是所有可能的1类激光系统（ 即不能在运行过程中产生有害的辐射水平，并免除任何控制措施，30）风险的人在上空的飞机，省去了位于酒店内的人的检举，通常需要由联邦航空管理局在美国31。不幸的是，激光破坏的可能性，一些在地球低轨道的卫星可能存在。出于这个原因，它被推荐用于安全和责任问题协调激光与一个适当的机构（ 例如美国战略司令部（美国战略司令部）在美国32）。 波前传感器，其测量的输入激光光机器人AO卡塞格伦仪器内已知的Shack-Hartmann传感器33，并包括一个小透镜阵列，光学继电器和成像传感器。小透镜阵列的折射率的光学元件，平面一侧上，与方形凸透镜的另一侧上的一个网格。它位于在光学共轭位置的入射光瞳的望远镜。当“回光”从日E激光穿过的lenslest阵列，在阵列中的（ 图4）的各透镜的焦点上的天空激光创建图像。然后这种图案的激光图像光学中继到的UV-优化的电荷耦合器件（CCD）摄像机。各图像的横向的xy位置给出的局部梯度的措施或“斜率”通过每个透镜阵列的光的波。的Robo-AO的各位置测量的信号 - 噪声比的取值范围从6至10，根据天顶角，看到条件（6.5电子在每个的四个像素中的检测器噪声的信号范围从100至200的光电子的每幅图像每测量）。 然后，计算出的光的波的整体形状由一个预先计算的波前重构矩阵乘以测量的斜坡。通过首先作出瞳孔的几何形状的模型，是由小透镜阵列劏重构矩阵创建。个人邻正常的基础上实现的功能（在这种情况下，磁盘的谐波功能到第 11径向为了，共75功能;文献34）超过横跨每个透镜的模型和一个2-D的最小二乘解的最佳拟合平面阵列中的计算。虽然这是一个近似的平均梯度，不同的是在实践中可以忽略不计的，在投影光瞳的边缘容易地处理的部分照射的透镜的几何形状与利益。单位振幅转换为每个基函数的边坡偏移量为每一个镜头，矩阵，由此衍生的影响。重构用奇异值分解的影响矩阵的伪逆矩阵，然后创建。一旦形状的光波中已知的术语的基组的系数，补偿逆形状可以命令上的高次波前校正器。进行测量的过程中，然后施加一个校正，并重复此周期一遍又一遍，是一个例子的一个不可分割的控制环路。机器人AO执行其控制环路1.2千赫的速率时，要保持与大气中的动态。小于1的比例因子（也被称为积分控制环路的增益），以及通常地接近0.6，被施加到校正信号，以维持稳定的控制环路，同时仍然最小的剩余误差校正光。 ROBO-AO内的高阶波前校正器是一种微机电系统（MEMS）的可变形反射镜35。 ROBO-AO使用120致动器调整的照射面的镜子，足够的空间分辨率，准确地满足计算的校正形状。致动器有一个最大的表面偏差的振幅为3.5μm，这对应于最多至7微米的光的相位补偿。在典型的天文观测站的大气条件，该补偿的长度大于5西格玛幅度的动荡引起的光学误差，因此导致在重大修正净空。此外，可变形反射镜可以补偿静电所产生的成本减少动态范围从仪器和望远镜的光学误差。 一个微妙的到使用激光探针的气氛是无法衡量的天文图像运动36。返回的激光光被视为从大致相同的位置，从它是投影并因此应该总是出现在相同的位置上的天空。在返回激光的光波通过波前传感器测量的任何整体倾斜，主要是通过机械的指向误差。的倾斜信号是用来驱动激光系统的上行链路小费倾斜反射镜，从而保持的Shack-Hartmann波前传感器上的图案中心。修正天文图像运动另案处理用科学的摄像头，解释如下。 ROBO-AO使用离轴抛物面（OAP）反映继电器光从望远镜的科学彩色摄像机（ 图3）。中继路径包括一个快速前端倾斜校正镜以及一个大气色散校正器（ADC）37由一对旋转棱镜。 ADC的气氛，是不直接的影响：大气作为一个棱镜，折射光的波长的函数，在整体搭配效果越来越强的望远镜的观测对象，通过解决一个特定的问题，指出在海拔较低，造成图像 - 特别是那些已被削尖的自适应光学校正 - 出现在地平线垂直的方向拉长。该ADC可以添加一个相反的色散量传入的光，有效地否定大气的棱柱形分散体（ 图5）的效果。结束时的OAP继电器是一种可见的二向色性，反射光的λ&lt;950 nm到电子倍增电荷耦合器件（EMCCD）相机，同时发送的​​红外光对红外相机。 EMCCD相机捕捉影像的能力，具有非常低的噪音38,39电子（检测器），帧速率，从而降低了内部曝光的图片议案，低于衍射极限的角分辨率。通过重新定心和堆叠的一系列这些图像，可以合成的长曝光图像，以最小的噪音罚款。 EMCCD相机也可以用来稳定运动图像上的红外线摄像头的成像的天文源的位置的测量可以用来连续命令的快速倾斜尖重新指向到期望的位置的图像。每个摄像头前的是一套一套合适的天文过滤器的滤光轮。 一个内部的望远镜和源模拟器集成到机器人AO系统作为一个校准工具。同时，它可以模拟紫外线激光聚焦在无穷远10公里，黑体源，匹配的主机望远镜的焦比和出瞳位置。第一ROBO-AO倍镜内指示所有的副镜，望远镜的自适应光学系统的光。折叠镜也安装在机动化的阶段可以被翻译满分的方式以显示内部望远镜和源模拟器。 虽然机器人AO系统的目的是在一个完全自主的方式操作，每个自适应光学观察的许多步骤可以手动执行。这一步一步的过程，随着一个简短的说明，在下面的章节中详细介绍。

bringing the visible universe into focus with robo-ao

地面光学望远镜的角分辨率湍流大气中的降解效果是有限的。在的情况下的气氛中，一个典型的望远镜的角分辨率仅受限衍射， 即 ，感兴趣的波长λ，其主镜的孔径，D的大小除以。例如，哈勃太空望远镜（HST），一个2.4米的主镜，角分辨率在可见光波段〜0.04弧秒。的气氛是由在稍微不同的温度下的空气，因此，不同的折射率，不断混合。光波被弯曲，因为他们通过的不均匀的气氛。当望远镜在地面上的重点光波，瞬间的图像出现分散的，随着时间的函数。其结果，长曝光获取的图像使用地面望远镜 - 4倍的直径甚至望远镜ETER HST - 出现模糊，并有大约0.5至1.5弧秒的最好的角分辨率。 天文自适应光学系统补偿大气湍流的影响。首先，对输入的非平面波的形状决定使用波前传感器测量附近的一个耀眼的明星。接着，在光学系统中，如可变形反射镜的元素，被命令纠正的入射光波的形状。其他更正的速度足以跟上动态变化的气氛，最终产生衍射极限的图像通过望远镜看起来。 的波阵面传感器测量的保真度是基于如何传入的光的空间和时间采样1。更细的取样要求明亮的参考对象。虽然最亮的恒星可以作为参考对象成像目标，从几个到几十在最佳条件下的弧秒的路程，最有趣的天文目标没有足够明亮的恒星附近。一种解决方案是一个高功率的激光束聚焦的方向的天文目标来创造一个人工的参考公知的形状，也被称为“激光导星&#39;。 ROBO-AO 2,3激光自适应光学系统采用一个10瓦的紫外线激光聚焦在距离10公里，以产生激光引导星。波前传感器测量的激光导星〜0.1弧秒，在1.5米望远镜的角分辨率的衍射极限的图像驱动的自适应光学校正。

机器人AO激光自适应光学系统是用来补偿大气湍流，并产生在可见光的衍射限制的分辨率的图像，和 近红外波长。 图1A显示了一个明星的形象，看到红色光通过未补偿大气湍流的图像宽度为1.0弧秒。 图1B显示了相同的星自适应光学系统校正后的图像的宽度减少到0.12弧秒，略大于一个完美的图像的宽度为0.10弧秒，在这个波长上的1.5-m望远镜。第一的艾里环，X射线衍射的结果，可以看出，作为微弱的环状结构的核心周围的图像。这大大改善角分辨率，使发现的二进制和多星系统（ 例如 图1C和 观察文献40）和更暗的恒星在密集的领域，如检测球状星团梅西埃3（在近红外的， 图6中看到），否则将是不可能直接查看通过大气湍流。太阳能系统对象的特点，如云木星以及其过境月亮Ganymede的（ 图7）的表面，也可以看出，与激光自适应光学观察时有更大程度的清晰度。 <img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig1.jpg" /> 图1。 （A）的长曝光图像通过未补偿大气湍流中我看到的一颗恒星，M，V = 3.5， 在可见光波段的自适应光学校正。每个数字代表一个1.5×1.5弧的第二个字段的视图上天空。波段（λ= 700 - 810纳米），在P60的1.5米望远镜在帕洛马天文台。在一半最大值处的全宽度（FWHM）为1.0弧秒（B）&lt;/ STRONG&gt;明星（A）激光自适应光学校正的ROBO-AO系统。恒星图像的核心具有未补偿的图像的峰值亮度的15倍，并具有半峰全宽为0.12弧秒（C）双星， 米 V = 8.4，为0.14弧秒的分离是通过使用显示ROBO-AO自适应光学系统。在每一种情况下，尖部 - 倾斜引导进行目标本身。 <img alt="图2" src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig2.jpg" /> 图2。 ROBO-AO激光自适应光学系统。（A）的自适应光学和科学仪器安装在的机器人1.5米的P60帕洛玛天文台的望远镜卡塞格林焦点。本激光系统及辅助电子设备连接到（B）的Robo-AO UV激光束P望远镜管的相对两侧的平衡。的望远镜圆顶ropagating了。的长曝光照片在此，激光束是可见的，由于瑞利散射的空气分子的光的一小部分也散射回朝向望远镜被用来作为探针的气氛。激光束就会变成橙色的，因为UV光透射过的UV感光摄像头，用于拍摄照片的彩色滤光片的方式。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">点击此处查看大图</a> 。 <img alt="图3" fo:content-width="5.5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig3highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig3.jpg" /> 图3。 ROBO-AO自适应光学系统和科学仪器。（A）的简化CAD模型。集中从望远镜二次反射镜（ 橙色 ）的光进入在中心的仪器通过一个小孔在被反射前由第一90度折叠镜朝向一个离轴抛物面（OAP）镜像的。此镜像望远镜的光瞳上的可变形反射镜表面。可变形反射镜反射后，UV分色分裂的激光光（ 紫色 ）和它定向到的激光的波前传感器。另外一个逆转的OAP反射镜内的波阵面传感器来校正非共同的路径引入的第一OAP镜反射的激光的10公里的共轭焦点的光学误差。的可见光和近红外光（ 绿色 ）通过紫外线分色OAP镜对由一个中继大气色散校正。然后，该光被反射的前端倾斜校正镜末期OAP反射镜的光聚焦朝向可见光分色。的可见光的分色反射可见光的光（ 蓝 ）的电子倍增CCD和发送的近红外光（ 红色 ）到折叠镜和最终的红外摄像机。合并后的紫外线，可见光和近红外光望远镜和源模拟器（ 黄色 ），可向自适应光学系统和科学仪器将第一倍镜的方式。（B）相应的照片的工具包<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">点击这里查看大图</a> 。 <img alt="图4" fo:content-width="6in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig4highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig4.jpg" /> 图4。夏克-哈特曼传感器（A）的概念图。作为平面波穿过的小透镜阵列，以规则的图案形成的图像上的检测器（ 蓝色 ）。当一个非平面波穿过的小透镜阵列，波的局部梯度影响吨他由每个透镜阵列（ 红色 ）形成的图像的位置（B）模式的激光图像的Robo-AO的Shack-Hartmann波前传感器。的88个点中的每一个是从10公里如所形成的小透镜阵列的各透镜，望远镜光瞳的几何形状确定的整体图案形状的激光散射图像。每个图像的参考图像的位置（ 程序1.6）给出了一个相对位移测量入射光波的局部梯度。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">点击此处查看大图</a> 。 <img alt="图5" src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig5.jpg" /> 图5。修正大气棱柱分散。自适应光学校正后的图像的11×16弧秒的子领域的球状星团梅西耶15日在望远镜仰角为45度。（A）自适应光学校正大气湍流的影响，大气棱柱分散依然影响着个别恒星的图像：图像清晰的地平线平行，而细长的垂直于地平线约1弧秒以上为λ= 400 - 950纳米。另外使用大气色散校正抵消大气棱柱形分散体（B）通过在两个方向上被回收，衍射限制的高分辨率成像的光谱带宽。 <img alt="图6" src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig6.jpg" /> 图6。图片的球状星团梅西耶3。（A）A 44×44圆弧的第二个字段的视图，长2分钟的未补偿的形象球状星团的核心梅西尔3在Z-波段（λ= 830 - 950纳米） （B）相同的I法师使用ROBO-AO揭​​示很多分，否则不能被视为与自适应光学校正。 <img alt="图7" src="/files/ftp_upload/50021/50021fig7.jpg" /> 图7。木星的图片。（A）A 0.033秒的未补偿快照木星（视直径为42弧秒）R-波段（λ= 560 - 670纳米）。（B）相同的图像与ROBO-AO激光自适应光学校正表面云的功能和更清晰的过境木卫三（Ganymede箭头）。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Bringing the Visible Universe into Focus with Robo-AO at JoVE.com

Bringing the Visible Universe into Focus with Robo-AO

光从天文对象必须穿越地球的湍流大气中，然后才可以通过地面望远镜拍摄。能够直接在理论上的最大角分辨率成像，必须使用的ROBO-AO的自适应光学系统采用先进的技术，如。

将成为关注的焦点，可见的宇宙ROBO-AO

The angular  resolution of ground-based optical telescopes is limited by the degrading  effects of the turbulent atmosphere. In the absence of an ...

bringing-the-visible-universe-into-focus-with-robo-ao

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

19.2K 次观看.  California Institute of Technology. 光从天文对象必须穿越地球的湍流大气中，然后才可以通过地面望远镜拍摄。能够直接在理论上的最大角分辨率成像，必须使用的ROBO-AO的自适应光学系统采用先进的技术，如。

视频: Bringing the Visible Universe into Focus with Robo-AO

Flame Experiments at the Advanced Light Source: New Insights into Soot Formation Processes

The following experimental protocols and the accompanying video are concerned with the flame experiments that are performed at the Chemical Dynamics Beamline of the Advanced Light Source (ALS) of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory1-4. This video demonstrates how the complex chemical structures of laboratory-based model flames are analyzed using flame-sampling mass spectrometry with tunable synchrotron-generated vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) radiation. This experimental approach combines isomer-resolving capabilities with high sensitivity and a large dynamic range5,6. The first part of the video describes experiments involving burner-stabilized, reduced-pressure (20-80 mbar) laminar premixed flames. A small hydrocarbon fuel was used for the selected flame to demonstrate the general experimental approach. It is shown how species&#8217; profiles are acquired as a function of distance from the burner surface and how the tunability of the VUV photon energy is used advantageously to identify many combustion intermediates based on their ionization energies. For example, this technique has been used to study gas-phase aspects of the soot-formation processes, and the video shows how the resonance-stabilized radicals, such as C3H3, C3H5, and i-C4H5, are identified as important intermediates7. The work has been focused on soot formation processes, and, from the chemical point of view, this process is very intriguing because chemical structures containing millions of carbon atoms are assembled from a fuel molecule possessing only a few carbon atoms in just milliseconds. The second part of the video highlights a new experiment, in which an opposed-flow diffusion flame and synchrotron-based aerosol mass spectrometry are used to study the chemical composition of the combustion-generated soot particles4. The experimental results indicate that the widely accepted H-abstraction-C2H2-addition (HACA) mechanism is not the sole molecular growth process responsible for the formation of the observed large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Gas sampling from laboratory-scale flames with online analysis of all species by mass spectrometry is a powerful method to investigate the complex mixture of chemical compounds occurring during combustion processes. Coupled with tunable soft ionization via synchrotron-generated vacuum-ultraviolet radiation, this technique provides isomer-resolved information and potentially fragment-free mass spectra.

火焰在实验的先进光源：全新洞察烟灰形成过程

The following experimental protocols and the accompanying video are concerned with the flame experiments that are performed at the Chemical Dynamics ...

科研

工程学

Visible-light Induced Reduction of Graphene Oxide Using Plasmonic Nanoparticle

Present work demonstrates the simple, chemical free, fast, and energy efficient method to produce reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) solution at RT using visible light irradiation with plasmonic nanoparticles. The plasmonic nanoparticle is used to improve the reduction efficiency of GO. It only takes 30 min&#160;at RT by illuminating the solutions with Xe-lamp, the r-GO solutions can be obtained by completely removing gold nanoparticles through simple centrifugation step. The spherical gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as compared to the other nanostructures is the most suitable plasmonic nanostructure for r-GO preparation. The reduced graphene oxide prepared using visible light and AuNPs was equally qualitative as chemically reduced graphene oxide, which was supported by various analytical techniques such as UV-Vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, powder XRD and XPS. The reduced graphene oxide prepared with visible light shows excellent quenching properties over the fluorescent molecules modified on ssDNA and excellent fluorescence recovery for target DNA detection. The r-GO prepared by recycled AuNPs is found to be of same quality with that of chemically reduced r-GO. The use of visible light with plasmonic nanoparticle demonstrates the good alternative method for r-GO synthesis.

A simple protocol for the preparation of reduced graphene oxide using visible light and plasmonic nanoparticle is described.

可见光诱导的还原氧化石墨烯的使用电浆纳米粒子

Present work demonstrates the simple, chemical free, fast, and energy efficient method to produce reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) solution at RT using ...

Quantification of Hydrogen Concentrations in Surface and Interface Layers and Bulk Materials through Depth Profiling with Nuclear Reaction Analysis

Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) via the resonant 1H(15N,&#945;&#947;)12C reaction is a highly effective method of depth profiling that quantitatively and non-destructively reveals the hydrogen density distribution at surfaces, at interfaces, and in the volume of solid materials with high depth resolution. The technique applies a 15N ion beam of 6.385 MeV provided by an electrostatic accelerator and specifically detects the 1H isotope in depths up to about 2 &#956;m from the target surface. Surface H coverages are measured with a sensitivity in the order of ~1013 cm-2 (~1% of a typical atomic monolayer density) and H volume concentrations with a detection limit of ~1018 cm-3 (~100 at. ppm). The near-surface depth resolution is 2-5 nm for surface-normal 15N ion incidence onto the target and can be enhanced to values below 1 nm for very flat targets by adopting a surface-grazing incidence geometry. The method is versatile and readily applied to any high vacuum compatible homogeneous material with a smooth surface (no pores). Electrically conductive targets usually tolerate the ion beam irradiation with negligible degradation. Hydrogen quantitation and correct depth analysis require knowledge of the elementary composition (besides hydrogen) and mass density of the target material. Especially in combination with ultra-high vacuum methods for in-situ target preparation and characterization, 1H(15N,&#945;&#947;)12C NRA is ideally suited for hydrogen analysis at atomically controlled surfaces and nanostructured interfaces. We exemplarily demonstrate here the application of 15N NRA at the MALT Tandem accelerator facility of the University of Tokyo to (1) quantitatively measure the surface coverage and the bulk concentration of hydrogen in the near-surface region of a H2 exposed Pd(110) single crystal, and (2) to determine the depth location and layer density of hydrogen near the interfaces of thin SiO2 films on Si(100).

We illustrate the application of 1H(15N,&#945;&#947;)12C resonant nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) to quantitatively evaluate the density of hydrogen atoms on the surface, in the volume, and at an interfacial layer of solid materials. The near-surface hydrogen depth profiling of a Pd(110) single crystal and of SiO2/Si(100) stacks is described.

通过与核反应分析深度剖面的表面和界面层和颗粒材料氢含量的定量

Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) via the resonant 1H(15N,&#945;&#947;)12C reaction is a highly effective method of depth profiling that quantitatively and ...

Effective Analysis of Human Exposure Conditions with Body-worn Dosimeters in the 2.4 GHz Band

A well-defined experimental procedure is put forward to evaluate maximum exposure conditions in a worst-case scenario whilst avoiding the uncertainties caused by the use of personal exposimeters (PEMs) as measuring devices: the body shadow effect (BSE), the limited sensitivity range, and the non-identification of the radiation source. An upper bound for exposure levels to EMF in several indoor enclosures has been measured and simulated. The frequency used for the study is 2.4 GHz, as it is the most commonly used band in indoor communications. Although recorded values are well below the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) reference levels, there is a particular need to provide reliable exposure levels within particularly sensitive environments. In terms of electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure, limits established in national and international standards for health protection have been set for unperturbed exposure conditions; that is, for real and objective exposure data that have not been altered in any way.

This study describes a protocol to measure exposure levels in the 2.4 GHz band, avoiding the uncertainties caused by the use of personal exposimeters as measuring devices. These alterations of the exposure levels should be taken into account, especially in compliance testing, where exposure limits are defined from non-perturbed data.

2.4 GHz 波段人体磨损剂量计暴露条件的有效分析

A well-defined experimental procedure is put forward to evaluate maximum exposure conditions in a worst-case scenario whilst avoiding the uncertainties ...

Enhanced Electron Injection and Exciton Confinement for Pure Blue Quantum-Dot Light-Emitting Diodes by Introducing Partially Oxidized Aluminum Cathode

Stable and efficient red (R), green (G), and blue (B) light sources based on solution-processed quantum dots (QDs) play important roles in next-generation displays and solid-state lighting technologies. The brightness and efficiency of blue QDs-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs) remain inferior to their red and green counterparts, due to the inherently unfavorable energy levels of different colors of light. To solve these problems, a device structure should be designed to balance the injection holes and electrons into the emissive QD layer. Herein, through a simple autoxidation strategy, pure blue QD-LEDs which are highly bright and efficient are demonstrated, with a structure of ITO/PEDOT:PSS/Poly-TPD/QDs/Al:Al2O3. The autoxidized Al:Al2O3 cathode can effectively balance the injected charges and enhance radiative recombination without introducing an additional electron transport layer (ETL). As a result, high color-saturated blue QD-LEDs are achieved with a maximum luminance over 13,000 cd m-2, and a maximum current efficiency of 1.15 cd A-1. The easily controlled autoxidation procedure paves the way for achieving high-performance blue QD-LEDs.

A protocol is presented for fabricating high-performance, pure blue ZnCdS/ZnS-based quantum dots light-emitting diodes by employing an autoxidized aluminum cathode.

采用部分氧化铝阴极增强电子注入和激子约束的纯蓝色量子点发光二极管

Stable and efficient red (R), green (G), and blue (B) light sources based on solution-processed quantum dots (QDs) play important roles in next-generation ...

Theoretical Calculation and Experimental Verification for Dislocation Reduction in Germanium Epitaxial Layers with Semicylindrical Voids on Silicon

Reduction of threading dislocation density (TDD) in epitaxial germanium (Ge) on silicon (Si) has been one of the most important challenges for the realization of monolithically integrated photonics circuits. The present paper describes methods of theoretical calculation and experimental verification of a novel model for the reduction of TDD. The method of theoretical calculation describes the bending of threading dislocations (TDs) based on the interaction of TDs and non-planar growth surfaces of selective epitaxial growth (SEG) in terms of dislocation image force. The calculation reveals that the presence of voids on SiO2 masks help to reduce TDD. Experimental verification is described by germanium (Ge) SEG, using an ultra-high vacuum chemical vapor deposition method and TD observations of the grown Ge via etching and cross-sectional transmission electron microscope (TEM). It is strongly suggested that the TDD reduction would be due to the presence of semicylindrical voids over the SiO2 SEG masks and growth temperature. For experimental verification, epitaxial Ge layers with semicylindrical voids are formed as the result of SEG of Ge layers and their coalescence. The experimentally obtained TDDs reproduce the calculated TDDs based on the theoretical model. Cross-sectional TEM observations reveal that both the termination and generation of TDs occur at semicylindrical voids. Plan-view TEM observations reveal a unique behavior of TDs in Ge with semicylindrical voids (i.e., TDs are bent to be parallel to the SEG masks and the Si substrate).

Theoretical calculation and experimental verification are proposed for a reduction of threading dislocation (TD) density in germanium epitaxial layers with semicylindrical voids on silicon. Calculations based on the interaction of TDs and surface via image force, TD measurements, and transmission electron microscope observations of TDs are presented.

硅上半圆柱空隙锗外延层位错还原的理论计算和实验验证

Reduction of threading dislocation density (TDD) in epitaxial germanium (Ge) on silicon (Si) has been one of the most important challenges for the ...

Procedure for the Transfer of Polymer Films Onto Porous Substrates with Minimized Defects

The fabrication of devices containing thin film composite membranes necessitates the transfer of these films onto the surfaces of arbitrary support substrates. Accomplishing this transfer in a highly controlled, mechanized, and reproducible manner can eliminate the creation of macroscale defect structures (e.g., tears, cracks, and wrinkles) within the thin film that compromise device performance and the usable area per sample. Here, we describe a general protocol for the highly controlled and mechanized transfer of a polymeric thin film onto an arbitrary porous support substrate for eventual use as a water filtration membrane device. Specifically, we fabricate a block copolymer (BCP) thin film on top of a sacrificial, water-soluble poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) layer and silicon wafer substrate. We then utilize a custom-designed, 3D-printed transfer tool and drain chamber system to deposit, lift-off, and transfer the BCP thin film onto the center of a porous anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) support disc. The transferred BCP thin film is shown to be consistently placed onto the center of the support surface due to the guidance of the meniscus formed between the water and the 3D-printed plastic drain chamber. We also compare our mechanized transfer-processed thin films to those that have been transferred by hand with the use of tweezers. Optical inspection and image analysis of the transferred thin films from the mechanized process confirm that little-to-no macroscale inhomogeneities or plastic deformations are produced, as compared to the multitude of tears and wrinkles produced from manual transfer by hand. Our results suggest that the proposed strategy for thin film transfer can reduce defects when compared to other methods across many systems and applications.

We present a procedure for highly controlled and wrinkle-free transfer of block copolymer thin films onto porous support substrates using a 3D-printed drain chamber. The drain chamber design is of general relevance to all procedures involving transfer of macromolecular films onto porous substrates, which is normally done by hand in an irreproducible fashion.

聚合物薄膜在多孔基板上的转移程序,具有最小化的缺陷

The fabrication of devices containing thin film composite membranes necessitates the transfer of these films onto the surfaces of arbitrary support ...

Accurate Determination of the Equilibrium Surface Tension Values with Area Perturbation Tests

We demonstrate two robust protocols for determining the equilibrium surface tension (EST) values with area perturbation tests. The EST values should be indirectly determined from the dynamic surface tension (DST) values when surface tension (ST) values are at steady-state and stable against perturbations. The emerging bubble method (EBM) and the spinning bubble method (SBM) were chosen, because, with these methods, it is simple to introduce area perturbations while continuing dynamic tension measurements. Abrupt expansion or compression of an air bubble was used as a source of area perturbation for the EBM. For the SBM, changes in the rotation frequency of the sample solution were used to produce area perturbations. A Triton X-100 aqueous solution of a fixed concentration above its critical micelle concentration (CMC) was used as a model surfactant solution. The determined EST value of the model air/water interface from the EBM was 31.5 &#177; 0.1 mN&#183;m-1 and that from the SBM was 30.8 &#177; 0.2 mN&#183;m-1. The two protocols described in the article provide robust criteria for establishing the EST values.

Two protocols for determining the equilibrium surface tension (EST) values using the emerging bubble method (EBM) and the spinning bubble method (SBM) are presented for a surfactant-containing aqueous phase against air.

通过区域扰动测试精确测定平衡表面张力值

We demonstrate two robust protocols for determining the equilibrium surface tension (EST) values with area perturbation tests. The EST values should be ...

In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy with Biasing and Fabrication of Asymmetric Crossbars Based on Mixed-Phased a-VOx

Resistive switching crossbar architecture is highly desired in the field of digital memories due to low cost and high-density benefits. Different materials show variability in resistive switching properties due to the intrinsic nature of the material used, leading to discrepancies in the field because of underlying operation mechanisms. This highlights a need for a reliable technique to understand mechanisms using nanostructural observations. This protocol explains a detailed process and methodology of in&#160;situ nanostructural analysis as a result of electrical biasing using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It provides visual and reliable evidence of underlying nanostructural changes in real time memory operations. Also included is the methodology of fabrication and electrical characterizations for asymmetric crossbar structures incorporating amorphous vanadium oxide. The protocol explained here for vanadium oxide films can be easily extended to any other materials in a metal-dielectric-metal sandwiched structure. Resistive switching crossbars are predicted to serve the programmable logic and neuromorphic circuits for next-generation memory devices, given the understanding of the operation mechanisms. This protocol reveals the switching mechanism in a reliable, timely, and cost-effective way in any type of resistive switching materials, and thereby predicts the device&#39;s applicability.

In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy with Biasing and Fabrication of Asymmetric Crossbars Based on Mixed-Phased a-VOx

Presented here is a protocol for analyzing nanostructural changes during in&#160;situ biasing with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for a stacked metal-insulator-metal structure. It has significant applications in resistive switching crossbars for the next generation of programmable logic circuits and neuromimicking hardware, to reveal their underlying operation mechanisms and practical applicability.

基于混合相位a-VOx的不对称横杆的偏置和制造现场传输电子显微镜

Resistive switching crossbar architecture is highly desired in the field of digital memories due to low cost and high-density benefits. Different ...

Demonstration of Spin-Multiplexed and Direction-Multiplexed All-Dielectric Visible Metaholograms

The optical holography technique realized by metasurfaces has emerged as a novel approach to projective volumetric display and information encryption display in the form of ultrathin and almost flat optical devices. Compared to the conventional holographic technique with spatial light modulators, the metahologram has numerous advantages such as miniaturization of optical setup, higher image resolution and larger field of visibility for holographic images. Here, a protocol is reported for the fabrication and optical characterization of optical metaholograms that are sensitive to the spin and direction of incident light. The metasurfaces are composed of hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H), which has large refractive index and small extinction coefficient in the entire visible range resulting in high transmittance and diffraction efficiency. The device produces different holographic images when the spin or direction of incident light are switched. Therefore, they can encode multiple types of visual information simultaneously. The fabrication protocol consists of film deposition, electron beam writing and subsequent etching. The fabricated device can be characterized using a customized optical setup that consists of a laser, a linear polarizer, a quarter waveplate, a lens and a charge-coupled device (CCD).

We present a protocol for fabrication of spin- and direction-multiplexed visible metaholograms, then conduct an optical experiment to verify their function. These metaholograms can easily visualize encoded information, so they can be used for projective volumetric display and information encryption.

旋转多路复用和方向多路复用全介电可见元全息图的演示

The optical holography technique realized by metasurfaces has emerged as a novel approach to projective volumetric display and information encryption ...