这项工作是由来自美国国立卫生研究院的赞助：EY015748，EY017964（MEZ），和EY019517（ASV）。这项工作还得到了防盲研究无限制补助金眼科部和中央纽约的狮子。我们还要感谢我们的动物技术员，马修丽尼，他无微不至的关怀动物和加强在该视频的明星。

动物护理 非洲爪蟾在这项研究中使用的蝌蚪生长，并提出处理根据实验动物的护理和使用经州医科大学IACUC和引导程序。 1，预行为设置：蝌蚪<ol><li>从市售来源获得受精爪蟾胚胎或体外受精的卵母细胞中，如前所述6。 </li><li>将囊胚神经板期胚胎在18˚C 60毫米并载0.1X孕产妇死亡率[10 X Marc的改良林格（MMR）解决方案股票（10毫米MgCl 2的培养皿中，20毫米氯化钾，20毫米氯化钙2; 50毫米肝素钠; 1 M氯化钠;用50微克/毫升庆大霉素抗生素调节至pH 7.5，高压灭菌，并存储在RT）]。改变0.1X孕产妇死亡率每一天，并移除任何死胚。 </li><li>一旦胚胎达到Nieuwkoop和法贝尔阶段〜七月27日至30日，第切换é胚胎成0.1X孕产妇死亡率无抗生素，使肠道细菌的生长。 </li><li>长出蝌蚪，直到他们到达饲养阶段（阶段45）和移动为100毫米培养皿充满0.1X孕产妇死亡率。喂它们荨麻粉上清液隔日了一个星期，改变0.1X孕产妇死亡率的干预一天。 </li><li>在100mm的培养皿中一周后，将动物以半加仑罐填充有水蛙[0.5 g / L的瞬间海洋和2mM磷酸氢二钠（的Na 2 HPO 4：分子量141.96），pH为6.8。放他们，如同在步骤2.4，但换水，每周只有2-3次水时是阴天。维持动物在12小时light/12暗光周期与灯光早上6点打开。 </li><li>将半加仑的油箱与测试对象在一个白色的表面像一个实验室工作台底垫，至少有12小时的O / N，在测试之前。 </li><li>在阶段45到50的测试蝌蚪在下面的步骤3所述。 </li></ol> 2，预行为设置：技术设备吨<ol><li>设置在实验室的行为分析的区域一边。它应该是在一个安静的，与标准荧光灯低流量区域。 </li><li>制备的测试槽的动物。 嵌套，半加仑的测试坦克是由两部分组成：一个内罐，将举行水和蝌蚪;和外罐的视觉刺激。 <ol><li>为内槽，使在外侧角部与Sharpie笔，5厘米从底部的小标记;这是吃水线（ 图1A，绿色虚线）。 </li><li>另外，对于内槽，填充在储罐中的d​​ivets（在角部和中心）的惰性化合物，类似的Sylgard弹性体。注：蝌蚪会在这些领域徘徊，如果他们不填写。 </li><li>对于外槽，盖1罐用黑色导电胶带，另一半用白色纸巾图1B的外侧的恰好一半。 </li></ol></li><li>将坦克上的接种转盘。 </li><li>安装摄像头/三脚架，这样它上面的测试坦克。调整相机以允许测试区域的可视化， 如图1C所示 。 </li><li>将摄像头连接到电脑与安装了5个QuickTime播放器软件。打开相机电源。在QuickTime Player，下文件，选择“新建动画拍摄。”行为分析安装程序将在计算机上看到的时候了。 </li><li>悬垂一个轻量级的棉布在整个安装，以减少外部线索，可能会影响蝌蚪的行为，以及，降低水的表面上反射光。 </li><li>确保在35-50之间cd /米2的布措施的亮度。 </li></ol> 3，行为分析<ol><li>填写内部测试坦克5cm的水痕在步骤1.2.1与青蛙的水制成。 </li><li>用一个小网，轻轻将动物移入内部测试箱。 </li><li>开放的问答计算机，并使用外罐为指导uickTime软件，请确保相机能够以可视化并记录试验区。 </li><li>写在一张纸上，并记录在相机的动物名称，日期和时间。 </li><li>将测试箱插入外箱与箱的黑色侧向右图2。 </li><li>开始安排的罐后，立即记录该电影，并设置计时器，持续2分钟。 </li><li>当计时器的蜂鸣声，取出内测试箱，旋转外槽180°，然后将外槽内的内槽试验。启动定时器。注：黑方现在应该在另一边。 </li><li>总共十次重复步骤3.7，八个次。使用图2为指导，检查了每个试验。 </li><li>重复的行为分析上的两个独立的日子。 </li></ol> 4，视网膜干切断<ol><li>将动物在0.02％三卡因，直到他们反应迟钝到尾巴捏了＃3镊子。 </li><li>熔体1％琼脂糖在0.1X孕产妇死亡率，然后添加了60毫米的培养皿。一旦冷却，使一个小的矩形草皮在琼脂糖和蝌蚪加至用少量0.02％三卡因的草皮，从而使动物被部分地浸没在液体中。 </li><li>刺穿皮肤的眼用25号针头的背侧区域后方成45度角，而对支撑在另一侧镊子的动物。 </li><li>注意不要剪断静脉，它位于靠近视神经，小心伸入带＃5镊子孔，剪断视神经和翻转出来的方式。如果出现严重出血，由于不小心剪断动脉，然后迅速将动物在2％三卡因安乐死。注意：2％三卡因溶液可引起麻木的人类。这个解决方案应该带手套处理。 </li><li>恢复的动物在手术后，将动物在100毫米的皮氏培养皿用0.7X MMR和50微克/毫升庆大霉素20分钟。 NEXT，蝌蚪转移到污水箱中的青蛙水。让动物休息的O / N。 </li><li>第二天早上，测试如上所述（步骤3.1-3.9）的视功能。 </li></ol> 5。分析结果<ol><li>后的试验完成后，测量时间的蝌蚪停留在罐的黑色侧的量。 <ol><li>手动查看使用软件所显示的时间，并允许频繁暂停的视频。看视频显示时间。写下两分钟的审判，这是当内罐成功巢外罐内部，平方鉴于摄像头的开始。 </li><li>使用的蝌蚪的眼睛的位置来定义该罐的侧面将动物游泳。定义跨越从水箱的一侧，以仅当两个眼睛已经越过了黑/白线对其他。 </li></ol></li><li>写下每个间隔（以秒为单位）的开始和结束该动物花费在黑边。暂停和重新风的视频，以确保准确性。总计每次试验中的秒。 </li><li>输入这些数字进入附加行为工作表。工作表将计算的时间，该动物减去花费在坦克从总120秒试验和除以以秒为单位的总时间的黑边所花费的时间上的白边的比[（120 - 总秒数花在黑边）/ 120秒]。工作表的平均值这一比例在所有10项试验。 </li><li>利用学生的T检验，配对，双尾分布，以确定是否天的试验是显著（P≤0.05）。 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Maurer, C. M., Huang, Y. Y., Neuhauss, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+zebrafish+oculomotor+behavior+to+model+human+disorders.">Application of zebrafish oculomotor behavior to model human disorders.</a> Rev Neurosci. 22 (1), 5-16 (2011).</li><li>Solessio, E., Scheraga, D., Engbretson, G. A., Knox, B. E., Barlow, R. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Circadian+modulation+of+temporal+properties+of+the+rod+pathway+in+larval+Xenopus.">Circadian modulation of temporal properties of the rod pathway in larval Xenopus.</a> J Neurophysiol. 92 (5), 2672-2684 (2004).</li><li>Moriya, T., Kito, K., Miyashita, Y., Asami, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preference+for+background+color+of+the+Xenopus+laevis+tadpole.">Preference for background color of the Xenopus laevis tadpole.</a> J Exp Zool. 276 (5), 335-344 (1996).</li><li>Viczian, A. S., Solessio, E. C., Lyou, Y., Zuber, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+functional+eyes+from+pluripotent+cells.">Generation of functional eyes from pluripotent cells.</a> PLoS Biol. 7 (8), (2009).</li><li>Choi, R. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cone+degeneration+following+rod+ablation+in+a+reversible+model+of+retinal+degeneration.">Cone degeneration following rod ablation in a reversible model of retinal degeneration.</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 52 (1), 364-373 (2011).</li><li>Viczian, A. S., Zuber, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+determination+using+the+animal+cap+transplant+(ACT)+assay+in+Xenopus+laevis.">Tissue determination using the animal cap transplant (ACT) assay in Xenopus laevis.</a> J Vis Exp. 16 (39), (2010).</li><li>Nieuwkoop, P. D., Faber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Normal table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin) : a systematical and chronological survey of the development from the fertilized egg till the end of metamorphosis. , (1994).</li><li>Blackiston, D., Shomrat, T., Nicolas, C. L., Granata, C., Levin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+second-generation+device+for+automated+training+and+quantitative+behavior+analyses+of+molecularly-tractable+model+organisms.">A second-generation device for automated training and quantitative behavior analyses of molecularly-tractable model organisms.</a> PLoS One. 5 (12), (2010).</li><li>Rosemberg, D. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differences+in+spatio-temporal+behavior+of+zebrafish+in+the+open+tank+paradigm+after+a+short-period+confinement+into+dark+and+bright+environments.">Differences in spatio-temporal behavior of zebrafish in the open tank paradigm after a short-period confinement into dark and bright environments.</a> PLoS One. 6 (5), (2011).</li><li>Dong, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visual+Avoidance+in+Xenopus+Tadpoles+is+Correlated+With+the+Maturation+of+Visual+Responses+in+the+Optic+Tectum.">Visual Avoidance in Xenopus Tadpoles is Correlated With the Maturation of Visual Responses in the Optic Tectum.</a> J Neurophysiol. 101 (2), 803-815 (2009).</li><li>Lan, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noggin+Elicits+Retinal+Fate+In+Xenopus+Animal+Cap+Embryonic+Stem+Cells.">Noggin Elicits Retinal Fate In Xenopus Animal Cap Embryonic Stem Cells.</a> Stem Cells. 27 (9), 2146-2152 (2009).</li><li>De Robertis, E. M., Kuroda, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dorsal-ventral+patterning+and+neural+induction+in+Xenopus+embryos.">Dorsal-ventral patterning and neural induction in Xenopus embryos.</a> Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 20, 285-308 (2004).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

我们在这里报告，可以很容易地进行下一个星期由受过训练的最低限度实验室人员一个简单的视觉引导行为分析。而其他检测需要专门的设备和专业技术在动物行为，此法可快速测试，以确定视觉功能。另一个行为分析中，视觉回避试验中，已开发，以确定如何在顶盖有助于视觉感知在爪 10。该测定法测量空间的调谐和对比敏感度响应于移动与稳定的背景，因此，可以测量比简单?...

非洲爪蟾已被用来作为一种模式生物来研究眼的形成。眼睛快速发展，成长到成熟，在不到一个星期的那些对视觉发育和功能的影响测试基因或通路。来测试视觉功能，视动和optomotor反应已被用于在斑马鱼和爪蟾蝌蚪，分别1,2。由于非洲爪蟾蝌蚪的眼睛比斑马鱼相对较小，此法需要使用专门的设备和训练有素的人员来检测在非洲爪蟾的微妙尾巴翻转和眼动行为。在非洲爪蟾的更健壮的行为是偏爱使用白色背景，在此3所述游泳在一个罐中。当放置在一个半黑/半白罐蝌蚪，预变质蝌蚪迅速游到水箱的白边。我们以前使用此测定法来确定是否多能干细胞衍生的眼睛的功能4。这里，我们报告了详细的版本该测定的，它可以被用来测试premetamorphic 爪蟾蝌蚪的视觉功能。 此法比optomotor响应试验简单，因为它只需要安装数码摄像机，数码相机的软件和标准的设备在大多数非洲爪蟾的实验室发现。此外，记录的响应并不需要特别的训练来统计结果。我们的代表性的结果表明，在相同组的蝌蚪，已经经历双视网膜干切断，游随机周围的罐中。我们还包括来自代表蝌蚪的行为分析结果，显示一只眼睛可以为视觉反应测试。工作表已经被包括在内，以便在试验过程中获得的号码可以被插入和分析。此表可用于确定测试的蝌蚪是否有一个视觉响应。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="654">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">1/2-gal. Flex-Tank with Cover</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">eNasco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SB19271M</td>
			<td style="width:225px;">size: 5-3/8&#34; x 7&#34; x 3-3/4&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Black electrical tape</td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">White tissue paper</td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Large Inoculating Turntable</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">50809-022</td>
			<td>size: Dia 114.3 x&#160; H 76.2 mm (4 1/2&#160; x&#160; 3&#34;)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Durasorb Underpad</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">82004-836</td>
			<td>size: 43.2 x 60.1 cm (17 x 24&#34;)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="61">
			<td height="61" style="height:61px;width:216px;">Kim wipe</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Krackeler Scientific, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1945-34155-CS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Standard Tripod</td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;">various</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">iSight camera or webcam</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Apple</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M8817LL/A</td>
			<td>Good for larger tadpoles but small ones are difficult to see</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Portable computer</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Apple/PC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">various</td>
			<td>We used a 13&#34; MacBook, 2 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo running MacOSX Lion 10.7.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MiniDV Handycam Camcorder</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">SONY</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DCR-HC42</td>
			<td>Connected by firewire to the computer with a 6-conductor and 4-conductor alpha FireWire 400&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Handycam Station</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">SONY</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DCRA-C121</td>
			<td>This can be used for connecting firewire to camera</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">QuickTime Player software</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Quicktime</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Version 10.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:216px;">26 Gauge Needle (5/8&#34; length)</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BD305115</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="61">
			<td height="61" style="height:61px;width:216px;">Dumont #5 Forceps Biology</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11295-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;"></td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:225px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:216px;">Disposables</td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:225px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:216px;">Gentamicin Sulfate [50 mg/ml]</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">17-528Z</td>
			<td>Stored at room temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:216px;">Sylgard 184 Silicone Elastomer</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NC9644388</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="61">
			<td height="61" style="height:61px;width:216px;">Instant Ocean</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Doctors Foster and Smith</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">CD-116528</td>
			<td>Stock solution = 100 g/L stored at room temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:216px;">Sodium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S0876</td>
			<td>Stock solution = 0.4 M stored at room temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="61">
			<td height="61" style="height:61px;width:216px;">Tricaine (Ethyl-3-aminobenzoate methanesulfonate salt)</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A5040</td>
			<td>Stock solution = 10% stored at -20&#730;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">In vitro fertilized embryos</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">eNasco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">LM00490MX</td>
			<td>100 embryos/unit</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a simple behavioral assay for testing visual function in xenopus laevis

在青蛙的蝌蚪视功能测量， 非洲爪蟾 ，允许筛选的盲目性在活的动物。在视动反应是已经在测试的所有脊椎动物中观察到一个基于视觉的，反身的行为。蝌蚪眼睛小所以尾部翻转响应作为替代措施，这需要训练有素的技术人员来记录微妙的响应。我们开发了一种替代行为分析基础上的事实，蝌蚪喜欢当放置在一个用黑色和白色的边槽上槽的白边游泳。这里提出的分析是，创建一个容易测量的响应一种廉价，简单的替代方法。该装置由一个三脚架，摄像头和嵌套测试的坦克，在大多数非洲爪蟾实验室一应俱全。本文包括一个电影展示蝌蚪的行为，前后切断视神经后。为了测试一只眼睛的功能，我们还包括下列国家代表蝌蚪在每只眼睛的视网膜进行干切断连续数天的sentative结果。未来的研究可以制定此法的自动版本测试许多蝌蚪的视力一次。

以前的报告显示，premetamorphic 爪蟾蝌蚪喜欢游泳，黑色/ ​​白色背心的白边，并呼吁该试验中，背景色彩偏好分析3，我们为了测试的两种蝌蚪眼在视功能改变了这一试验不到一个星期。以这种方式，他们的眼睛可以被收集用于组织学检查。 我们在这里显示了如何响应是由于视觉线索。在电影1中，在左面板和右面板的蝌蚪是相同的动物。在左边是...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Simple Behavioral Assay for Testing Visual Function in Xenopus laevis at JoVE.com

A Simple Behavioral Assay for Testing Visual Function in Xenopus laevis

非洲爪蟾蝌蚪喜欢上一个黑/白罐的白边游泳。此行为是由他们的愿景指导。基于这种情况，我们提出了一个简单的实验来测试蝌蚪的视觉功能。

一个简单的行为分析在检测视觉功能<em&gt;非洲爪蟾</em

Measurement of the visual function in the tadpoles of the frog, Xenopus laevis, allows screening for blindness in live animals. The optokinetic response ...

a-simple-behavioral-assay-for-testing-visual-function-xenopus

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

A Simple Behavioral Assay for Testing Visual Function in Xenopus laevis

9.7K 次观看.  Center for Vision Research, SUNY Eye Institute, Upstate Medical University.  非洲爪蟾蝌蚪喜欢上一个黑/白罐的白边游泳。此行为是由他们的愿景指导。基于这种情况，我们提出了一个简单的实验来测试蝌蚪的视觉功能。 

视频: A Simple Behavioral Assay for Testing Visual Function in Xenopus laevis

The Vermicelli and Capellini Handling Tests: Simple quantitative measures of dexterous forepaw function in rats and mice

Previous characterizations of rodent eating behavior have revealed that they use coordinated forepaw movements to manipulate food pieces. We have extended upon this work to develop a simple quantitative measure of forepaw dexterity that is sensitive to lateralized impairments and age-dependent changes. Rodents learn skillful forepaw and digit movements to manage thin pasta pieces, which they eagerly consume. We have previously described methods for quantifying vermicelli handling in rats and showed that the measures are very sensitive to forelimb impairments resulting from unilateral ischemic lesions, middle cerebral artery occlusions and unilateral striatal dopamine depletion [Allred, R.P., Adkins, D.L., Woodlee, M.T., Husbands, L.C., Maldonado M.A., Kane, J.R., Schallert, T. &amp; Jones, T.A. The Vermicelli Handling Test: a simple quantitative measure of dexterous forepaw function in rats. J. Neurosci. Methods 170, 229-244 (2008)]. Here we present a more detailed protocol for this test in rats and compare it with a newly developed version for mice, the Capellini Handling Test. Rats and mice are videotaped while handling short lengths of uncooked vermicelli or capellini pasta, respectively, with a camera positioned to optimize the view of paw movements. Slow motion video playback allows for the identification of forepaw adjustments, defined as any distinct removal and replacement of the paw, or of any number of digits, on the pasta piece after eating commences. Forepaw adjustments per piece are averaged over trials per each testing session. Repeated testing permits sensitive quantitative analysis of changes in forepaw dexterity over time. Protocols for pre-testing habituation and handling practice, as well as procedures for characterizing atypical handling patterns, are described. Because rats and mice perform the pasta handling tests slightly differently, species-specific differences in administration and scoring of these tests are highlighted. All animal use was in accordance with protocols approved by the University of Texas at Austin Animal Care and Use Committee.

The Vermicelli and Capellini Handling Tests of forepaw dexterity take advantage of the natural inclination of rodents to manipulate food items using skillful forepaw and digit movements. Animals are videotaped while handling short strands of uncooked dry pasta. Slow motion video playback allows for the quantification of forepaw adjustments.

粉条和Capellini处理测试：在大鼠和小鼠的灵巧的前爪功能简单的定量措施

Previous characterizations of rodent eating behavior have revealed that they use coordinated forepaw movements to manipulate food pieces. We have extended ...

科研

神经科学

A General Method for Evaluating Incubation of Sucrose Craving in Rats

For someone on a food-restricted diet, food craving in response to food-paired cues may serve as a key behavioral transition point between abstinence and relapse to food taking 1. Food craving conceptualized in this way is akin to drug craving in response to drug-paired cues. A rich literature has been developed around understanding the behavioral and neurobiological determinants of drug craving; we and others have been focusing recently on translating techniques from basic addiction research to better understand addiction-like behaviors related to food 2-4.
As done in previous studies of drug craving, we examine sucrose craving behavior by utilizing a rat model of relapse. In this model, rats self-administer either drug or food in sessions over several days. In a session, lever responding delivers the reward along with a tone+light stimulus. Craving behavior is then operationally defined as responding in a subsequent session where the reward is not available. Rats will reliably respond for the tone+light stimulus, likely due to its acquired conditioned reinforcing properties 5. This behavior is sometimes referred to as sucrose seeking or cue reactivity. In the present discussion we will use the term "sucrose craving" to subsume both of these constructs.
In the past decade, we have focused on how the length of time following reward self-administration influences reward craving. Interestingly, rats increase responding for the reward-paired cue over the course of several weeks of a period of forced-abstinence. This "incubation of craving" is observed in rats that have self-administered either food or drugs of abuse 4,6. This time-dependent increase in craving we have identified in the animal model may have great potential relevance to human drug and food addiction behaviors.
Here we present a protocol for assessing incubation of sucrose craving in rats. Variants of the procedure will be indicated where craving is assessed as responding for a discrete sucrose-paired cue following extinction of lever pressing within the sucrose self-administration context (Extinction without cues) or as responding for sucrose-paired cues in a general extinction context (Extinction with cues).

Responding for food or drug-paired cues increases over the course of a period of abstinence and this may relate to an increased susceptibility to relapse behaviors. Here we detail a procedure for evaluating this "incubation of craving" in rats that have self-administered sucrose.

评估大鼠蔗糖渴求育成的一个通用方法

For someone on a food-restricted diet, food craving in response to food-paired cues may serve as a key behavioral transition point between abstinence and ...

Neural Explant Cultures from Xenopus laevis

The complex process of axon guidance is largely driven by the growth cone, which is the dynamic motile structure at the tip of the growing axon. During axon outgrowth, the growth cone must integrate multiple sources of guidance cue information to modulate its cytoskeleton in order to propel the growth cone forward and accurately navigate to find its specific targets1. How this integration occurs at the cytoskeletal level is still emerging, and examination of cytoskeletal protein and effector dynamics within the growth cone can allow the elucidation of these mechanisms. Xenopus laevis growth cones are large enough (10-30 microns in diameter) to perform high-resolution live imaging of cytoskeletal dynamics (e.g.2-4 ) and are easy to isolate and manipulate in a lab setting compared to other vertebrates. The frog is a classic model system for developmental neurobiology studies, and important early insights into growth cone microtubule dynamics were initially found using this system5-7 . In this method8, eggs are collected and fertilized in vitro, injected with RNA encoding fluorescently tagged cytoskeletal fusion proteins or other constructs to manipulate gene expression, and then allowed to develop to the neural tube stage. Neural tubes are isolated by dissection and then are cultured, and growth cones on outgrowing neurites are imaged. In this article, we describe how to perform this method, the goal of which is to culture Xenopus laevis growth cones for subsequent high-resolution image analysis. While we provide the example of +TIP fusion protein EB1-GFP, this method can be applied to any number of proteins to elucidate their behaviors within the growth cone.

Neural Explant Cultures from Xenopus laevis

Culturing neural explants from dissected Xenopus laevis embryos that express fluorescent fusion proteins allows for imaging of growth cone cytoskeletal dynamics.

的神经植体培养<em&gt;非洲爪蟾</em

The complex process of axon guidance is largely driven by the growth cone, which is the dynamic motile structure at the tip of the growing axon. During ...

Dissection, Culture, and Analysis of Xenopus laevis Embryonic Retinal Tissue

The process by which the anterior region of the neural plate gives rise to the vertebrate retina continues to be a major focus of both clinical and basic research. In addition to the obvious medical relevance for understanding and treating retinal disease, the development of the vertebrate retina continues to serve as an important and elegant model system for understanding neuronal cell type determination and differentiation1-16. The neural retina consists of six discrete cell types (ganglion, amacrine, horizontal, photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and M&uuml;ller glial cells) arranged in stereotypical layers, a pattern that is largely conserved among all vertebrates 12,14-18.
While studying the retina in the intact developing embryo is clearly required for understanding how this complex organ develops from a protrusion of the forebrain into a layered structure, there are many questions that benefit from employing approaches using primary cell culture of presumptive retinal cells 7,19-23. For example, analyzing cells from tissues removed and dissociated at different stages allows one to discern the state of specification of individual cells at different developmental stages, that is, the fate of the cells in the absence of interactions with neighboring tissues 8,19-22,24-33. Primary cell culture also allows the investigator to treat the culture with specific reagents and analyze the results on a single cell level 5,8,21,24,27-30,33-39. Xenopus laevis, a classic model system for the study of early neural development 19,27,29,31-32,40-42, serves as a particularly suitable system for retinal primary cell culture 10,38,43-45.
Presumptive retinal tissue is accessible from the earliest stages of development, immediately following neural induction 25,38,43. In addition, given that each cell in the embryo contains a supply of yolk, retinal cells can be cultured in a very simple defined media consisting of a buffered salt solution, thus removing the confounding effects of incubation or other sera-based products 10,24,44-45.
However, the isolation of the retinal tissue from surrounding tissues and the subsequent processing is challenging. Here, we present a method for the dissection and dissociation of retinal cells in Xenopus laevis that will be used to prepare primary cell cultures that will, in turn, be analyzed for calcium activity and gene expression at the resolution of single cells. While the topic presented in this paper is the analysis of spontaneous calcium transients, the technique is broadly applicable to a wide array of research questions and approaches (Figure 1).

Dissection, Culture, and Analysis of Xenopus laevis Embryonic Retinal Tissue

Xenopus laevis provides an ideal model system for studying cell fate specification and physiological function of individual retinal cells in primary cell culture. Here we present a technique for dissecting retinal tissues and generating primary cell cultures that are imaged for calcium activity and analyzed by in situ hybridization.

解剖，文化与分析<em&gt;非洲爪蟾</em&gt;胚胎视网膜组织

The process by which  the anterior region of the neural plate gives rise to the vertebrate retina  continues to be a major focus of both clinical and ...

Hippocampal Insulin Microinjection and In vivo Microdialysis During Spatial Memory Testing

Glucose metabolism is a useful marker for local neural activity, forming the basis of methods such as 2-deoxyglucose and functional magnetic resonance imaging. However, use of such methods in animal models requires anesthesia and hence both alters the brain state and prevents behavioral measures. An alternative method is the use of in vivo microdialysis to take continuous measurement of brain extracellular fluid concentrations of glucose, lactate, and related metabolites in awake, unrestrained animals. This technique is especially useful when combined with tasks designed to rely on specific brain regions and/or acute pharmacological manipulation; for example, hippocampal measurements during a spatial working memory task (spontaneous alternation) show a dip in extracellular glucose and rise in lactate that are suggestive of enhanced glycolysis1-3,4-5, and intrahippocampal insulin administration both improves memory and increases hippocampal glycolysis6. Substances such as insulin can be delivered to the hippocampus via the same microdialysis probe used to measure metabolites. The use of spontaneous alternation as a measure of hippocampal function is designed to avoid any confound from stressful motivators (e.g. footshock), restraint, or rewards (e.g. food), all of which can alter both task performance and metabolism; this task also provides a measure of motor activity that permits control for nonspecific effects of treatment. Combined, these methods permit direct measurement of the neurochemical and metabolic variables regulating behavior.

Hippocampal Insulin Microinjection and In vivo Microdialysis During Spatial Memory Testing

Modulation of hippocampally-dependent spatial working memory by direct intrahippocampal microinjection, accompanied and followed by in vivo microdialysis for metabolites in conscious, behaving animals.

海马胰岛素显微注射和<em在体内</em&gt;微透析过程中空间记忆测试

Glucose metabolism is a useful marker for local neural activity, forming the basis of methods such as 2-deoxyglucose and functional magnetic resonance ...

A Lightweight, Headphones-based System for Manipulating Auditory Feedback in Songbirds

Experimental manipulations of sensory feedback during complex behavior have provided valuable insights into the computations underlying motor control and sensorimotor plasticity1. Consistent sensory perturbations result in compensatory changes in motor output, reflecting changes in feedforward motor control that reduce the experienced feedback error. By quantifying how different sensory feedback errors affect human behavior, prior studies have explored how visual signals are used to recalibrate arm movements2,3 and auditory feedback is used to modify speech production4-7. The strength of this approach rests on the ability to mimic naturalistic errors in behavior, allowing the experimenter to observe how experienced errors in production are used to recalibrate motor output.
Songbirds provide an excellent animal model for investigating the neural basis of sensorimotor control and plasticity8,9. The songbird brain provides a well-defined circuit in which the areas necessary for song learning are spatially separated from those required for song production, and neural recording and lesion studies have made significant advances in understanding how different brain areas contribute to vocal behavior9-12. However, the lack of a naturalistic error-correction paradigm - in which a known acoustic parameter is perturbed by the experimenter and then corrected by the songbird - has made it difficult to understand the computations underlying vocal learning or how different elements of the neural circuit contribute to the correction of vocal errors13.
The technique described here gives the experimenter precise control over auditory feedback errors in singing birds, allowing the introduction of arbitrary sensory errors that can be used to drive vocal learning. Online sound-processing equipment is used to introduce a known perturbation to the acoustics of song, and a miniaturized headphones apparatus is used to replace a songbird's natural auditory feedback with the perturbed signal in real time. We have used this paradigm to perturb the fundamental frequency (pitch) of auditory feedback in adult songbirds, providing the first demonstration that adult birds maintain vocal performance using error correction14. The present protocol can be used to implement a wide range of sensory feedback perturbations (including but not limited to pitch shifts) to investigate the computational and neurophysiological basis of vocal learning.

We describe the design and assembly of miniaturized headphones suitable for replacing a songbird&#x2019;s natural auditory feedback with a manipulated acoustic signal. Online sound processing hardware is used to manipulate song output, introduce real-time errors in auditory feedback via the headphones, and drive vocal motor learning.

一个轻量级的，耳机为基础的系统操作鸣禽听觉反馈

Experimental manipulations of sensory feedback during complex behavior have provided valuable insights into the computations underlying motor control and ...

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise from extra-retinal sources. Ex vivo ERG provides an efficient method to dissect the function of retinal cells directly from an intact isolated retina of animals or donor eyes. In addition, ex vivo ERG can be used to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic agents on retina tissue from animals or humans. We show here how commercially available in vivo ERG systems can be used to conduct ex vivo ERG recordings from isolated mouse retinas. We combine the light stimulation, electronic and heating units of a standard in vivo system with custom-designed specimen holder, gravity-controlled perfusion system and electromagnetic noise shielding to record low-noise ex vivo ERG signals simultaneously from two retinas with the acquisition software included in commercial in vivo systems. Further, we demonstrate how to use this method in combination with pharmacological treatments that remove specific ERG components in order to dissect the function of certain retinal cell types.

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

同时<em&gt;体外</em两个由视网膜&gt;功能测试<em&gt;在体内</em&gt;电图系统

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise ...

A Behavioral Assay for Mechanosensation of MARCM-based Clones in Drosophila melanogaster

Because of the structural and functional homology to the hair cells of the mammalian inner ear, the neurons that innervate the Drosophila external sense organs provide an excellent model system for the study of mechanosensation. This protocol describes a simple touch behavior in fruit flies which can be used to identify mutations that interfere with mechanosensation. The tactile stimulation of a macrochaete bristle on the thorax of flies elicits a grooming reflex from either the first or third leg. Mutations that interfere with mechanotransduction (such as NOMPC), or with other aspects of the reflex arc, can inhibit the grooming response. A traditional screen of adult behaviors would have missed mutants that have essential roles during development. Instead, this protocol combines the touch screen with mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) to allow for only limited regions of homozygous mutant cells to be generated and marked by the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP). By testing MARCM clones for abnormal behavioral responses, it is possible to screen a collection of lethal p-element mutations to search for new genes involved in mechanosensation that would have been missed by more traditional methods.

A Behavioral Assay for Mechanosensation of MARCM-based Clones in Drosophila melanogaster

In order to identify novel mutations affecting mechanosensation, we designed an assay that measures the behavioral response to tactile stimulation of fly bristles in mutant clones generated by the MARCM method. The combination of techniques allows for the identification of mechanosensitive mutations that would otherwise be lethal.

一个行为分析对机械感觉MARCM为基础的克隆<em&gt;果蝇</em

Because of the structural and functional homology to the hair cells of the mammalian inner ear, the neurons that innervate the Drosophila external sense ...

Recording Temperature-induced Neuronal Activity through Monitoring Calcium Changes in the Olfactory Bulb of Xenopus laevis

The olfactory system, specialized in the detection, integration and processing of chemical molecules is likely the most thoroughly studied sensory system. However, there is piling evidence that olfaction is not solely limited to chemical sensitivity, but also includes temperature sensitivity. Premetamorphic Xenopus laevis are translucent animals, with protruding nasal cavities deprived of the cribriform plate separating the nose and the olfactory bulb. These characteristics make them well suited for studying olfaction, and particularly thermosensitivity. The present article describes the complete procedure for measuring temperature responses in the olfactory bulb of X. laevis larvae. Firstly, the electroporation of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) is performed with spectrally distinct dyes loaded into the nasal cavities in order to stain their axon terminals in the bulbar neuropil. The differential staining between left and right receptor neurons serves to identify the &#947;-glomerulus as the only structure innervated by contralateral presynaptic afferents. Secondly, the electroporation is combined with focal bolus loading in the olfactory bulb in order to stain mitral cells and their dendrites. The 3D brain volume is then scanned under line-illumination microscopy for the acquisition of fast calcium imaging data while small temperature drops are induced at the olfactory epithelium. Lastly, the post-acquisition analysis allows the morphological reconstruction of the thermosensitive network comprising the &#947;-glomerulus and its innervating mitral cells, based on specific temperature-induced Ca2+ traces. Using chemical odorants as stimuli in addition to temperature jumps enables the comparison between thermosensitive and chemosensitive networks in the olfactory bulb.

Recording Temperature-induced Neuronal Activity through Monitoring Calcium Changes in the Olfactory Bulb of Xenopus laevis

Here we describe a protocol for measuring and analyzing temperature responses in the olfactory bulb of Xenopus laevis. Olfactory receptor neurons and mitral cells are differentially stained, after which calcium changes are recorded, reflecting a sensitivity of some neural networks in the bulb to temperature drops induced at the nose.

通过的嗅球钙监控录像的变化温度引起的神经元电活动<em&gt;非洲爪蟾</em

The olfactory system, specialized in the detection, integration and processing of chemical molecules is likely the most thoroughly studied sensory system. ...

Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

The Xenopus tadpole retinotectal circuit, comprised of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the eye which form synapses directly onto neurons in the optic tectum, is a popular model to study how neural circuits self-assemble. The ability to carry out whole cell patch clamp recordings from tectal neurons and to record RGC-evoked responses, either in vivo or using a whole brain preparation, has generated a large body of high-resolution data about the mechanisms underlying normal, and abnormal, circuit formation and function. Here we describe how to perform the in vivo preparation, the original whole brain preparation, and a more recently developed horizontal brain slice preparation for obtaining whole cell patch clamp recordings from tectal neurons. Each preparation has unique experimental advantages. The in vivo preparation enables the recording of the direct response of tectal neurons to visual stimuli projected onto the eye. The whole brain preparation allows for the RGC axons to be activated in a highly controlled manner, and the horizontal brain slice preparation allows recording from across all layers of the tectum.

Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

In this paper, we discuss three brain preparations used for whole cell patch clamp recording to study the retinotectal circuit of Xenopus laevis tadpoles. Each preparation, with its own specific advantages, contributes to the experimental tractability of the Xenopus tadpole as a model to study neural circuit function.

爪蟾Tectal 神经元全细胞膜片钳记录的制备与协议

The Xenopus tadpole retinotectal circuit, comprised of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the eye which form synapses directly onto neurons in the optic ...