作者想感谢保罗Ciszek和Keith金刚砂从国家可再生能源实验室（NREL）的认证合资测量，莱利勃兰特（MIT）的光电子能谱测量，杰夫科特（ASU）为灵感的假设检验部分。这项工作是通过资助下的02.20.MC11博世能源研究网络支持的能源，通过合同DE-EE0005329的SunShot计划，美国能源部和罗伯特 - 博世LLC。五，斯氏，R.哈拉米略，和K.哈特曼承认的支持下，亚历山大·冯·洪堡基金会，美国能源部一个博士后EERE研究奖和英特尔博士研究生奖学金，分别。这使得工作中使用其屡获下ECS-0335765支持由美国国家科学基金会纳米系统中心在哈佛大学。

1.基材的选择和切削<ol><li>购买抛光硅片厚厚的热氧化。对于此报告的设备，使用500微米厚的硅片用300纳米或更厚的热氧化。该基板的选择标准将在讨论部分讨论。 </li><li>旋涂晶片的具有典型的正性光刻胶的抛光面（SPR 700或PMMA答495）和软烘烤（30秒，在100℃）。 注意：这是一个保护层，以防止在随后的切割步骤损坏或污染。 </li><li>使用一个模具锯到晶片切成1“×1”（25.4×25.4毫米2）正方形的基板。 </li></ol> 2.基板清洗<ol><li>除去颗粒和其他残留物而导致的使用压缩氮气枪切割步骤，随后进行超声浴在去离子（DI）水进行5分钟，在45 - 60℃。 </li><li>用超声波巴除去光致抗蚀层个在丙酮中5分钟，在45 - 60℃。 </li><li>清洗暴露的衬底3随后超声浴中，所有为5分钟，在45 - 60℃：丙酮，乙醇，和异丙醇。光洁度通过用压缩氮气枪干燥，同时基片留在石英载体。 </li></ol> 3.莫溅射<ol><li>加载干净的Si / SiO 2的衬底输送到一个高真空溅射系统。确保基材板是未加热的并且衬底旋转被启用。用于在商用系统用倾斜磁控管枪2“的目标和大约4投掷距离”这里报告的设备，工艺。 </li><li>在相对较高的背景压力的Ar例如10毫托沉积所述第一层（粘合层）。用于此处报道的设备，过程与180W的溅射功率（DC），这给了2.6埃/秒的生长速度，以及第一钼层，其为360纳米厚。 </li><li>沉积第二层（导电层）在相对较低的背景压力的Ar例如2毫托。使用相同的溅射功率为第一层（180瓦）和沉积相同的厚度。 注：这里所报告的设备有一个第二钼层为360nm厚，同第一层。 </li><li>莫沉积后，存放在真空下的基板，直到SnS的沉积步骤。 </li></ol> 4. SnS的沉积注意：ALD沉积技术在子部分4.1中描述，并且TE沉积在子部分4.2中描述。在ALD沉积系统示于图2和TE沉积系统示于图3。 <ol><li>存款的SnS通过ALD <ol><li>前装载到反应器中，放入钼基板在UV臭氧清洁器5分钟，以除去有机粒子。然后将基片的基片支架上，然后插入到沉积区。 </li><li>稳定炉坦佩叉涂抹在200℃开始沉积之前。 </li><li>从双（N，N- -diisopropylacetamidinato&#39;） -锡（II）锡（MEC（N -iPr）2）2，这里称为锡（AMD）2]和硫化氢（H反应生长的SnS薄膜2 S）4。 <ol><li>保持锡（AMD）2前体在95℃的恒定温度。用纯N 2气以从容器协助的锡（AMD）2蒸气递送在烤箱到沉积区。在每个ALD循环，供给三个剂量锡（AMD）的2前驱体为1.1托秒的总暴露。 </li><li>在N 2中使用的4％的H 2 S的气体混合物作为硫源。确保暴露于硫化氢汽是每剂量1.5托秒。确保的 H 2 S的分压和H 2 S的氮气的总压是0.76毫米汞柱和19乇，分别。 </li></ol></li><li>集合T他锡前体的剂量和H 2 S的剂量之间泵送时间仅为1秒（短相比大多数其它常规的ALD过程），以加速的沉积。 注意：因为Sn的前体没有完全被这短抽时间除去一些残余锡前体，当硫化氢到达保持。因而，处理可以被描述为一个脉冲CVD工艺。的SnS薄膜的生长速率为0.33埃/循环，或0.04埃/秒。 </li></ol></li><li>存款的SnS由TE <ol><li>确保处理腔室的压力为2×10 -7乇或更低。负载衬底输送到通过负载锁定腔室中。持基板的板或者与单个片段，或者与与被拧紧到衬底板适当大小的口袋定制基板支架。 </li><li>斜源和基片加热器为额定值。对于这里报告设备中的基板温度为240℃，生长速率为17; /秒;为实现这一增长率设置源温度范围为550 - 610℃（所需的源温度随时间源粉末的单个负载）。目标膜厚度为1000nm。 </li><li>前后的SnS薄膜沉积通过移动QCM臂进入处理室后使用石英晶体监视器（QCM）测量沉积速率。对于该测定将衬底升高，使得QCM可以移动到衬底生长的位置。 注：沉积速率仍然相当稳定整个3小时的沉积时间（±0.05 /秒偏差）。 </li><li>沉积之后，放空到空气之前转移样品放回负载锁。通过空气中迅速运送样品到存储无论是在真空中或在下一处理步骤之前在惰性气氛手套箱中。 注意：典型无意空气暴露时间大约为3分钟。典型的储存时间是一天和AW之间伊克。 </li></ol></li></ol> 5. SnS的退火注意：此步骤是为ALD和TE的太阳能电池进行略有不同。对于ALD太阳能电池的退火步骤中的子节5.1中描述，并且对于TE太阳能电池的过程中的子节5.2中描述。退火的目的是在讨论部分讨论。 <ol><li>退火的ALD生长的SnS薄膜的硫化氢气体。 注意：在用于ALD生长同样的系统中进行该步骤。 <ol><li>在40 SCCM和10毫米汞柱压力流量用纯硫化氢气体（纯度99.5％）。 </li><li>加热的SnS薄膜的400℃的温度并保持1小时在H 2 S的气体的环境中。确保该气体流动在整个过程中，包括温度斜坡上升和下降。 </li></ol></li><li>退火TE生长的SnS薄膜的硫化氢气体。执行此步骤中的一个专用的管式炉。 <ol><li>第负荷Ë样品到一个干净的石英板和滑动到炉的热区的区域。 </li><li>熔炉被密封后，吹扫三次，纯的N 2，并允许抽空到基础压力。 </li><li>建立气流在100sccm的4％的H 2 S在28乇。 </li><li>坡道的温度至400℃，用10分钟。持在400℃下1小时，然后让样品冷却无助于热区。保持常数为H 2 S的气流和压力直到样品冷却到低于60℃。取出样品并且立即进入下一个步骤，或将它们放入存储在惰性气体的手套箱。 </li></ol></li></ol> 6. SnS的表面钝化了天然氧化物注意：此步骤是为ALD和TE的太阳能电池进行略有不同。在子部分6.1 ALD太阳能电池的表面钝化步骤进行说明，而对于TE太阳能电池的过程中的子部分中描述6.2。本步骤的功能是在讨论部分进一步讨论。 <ol><li>对于ALD生长的样品，通过ALD生长一层薄薄的SnO 2。 注意：我们使用不同的反应器比用于SnS的增长。 <ol><li>成长的SnO 2由锡的环状酰胺的反应[（1,3-双（1,1-二甲基乙基）-4,5-二甲基- （4R，5R）-1,3,2- diazastannolidin -2-亚基）锡（Ⅱ）]和过氧化氢 ​​（H 2 O 2）。存储环状酰胺锡前体在烘箱中于43℃，并且在一个鼓泡器在RT为H 2 O 2。 </li><li>保持在120℃下沉积基底的温度。 </li><li>露出的锡前体和H 2 O 2的用在每个周期0.33和1.5乇第二，分别为共5个循环。检查所得的SnO 2的厚度为0.6 0.7纳米，如通过X射线光电子能谱（XPS）分析10测定。 </li></ol></li><li>对于TE生长样本，形成THISnO 2的空运曝光N层。 <ol><li>暴露样品到实验室环境空气24小时。检查所得的SnO 2的厚度为约0.5纳米，通过XPS分析测得的。 注意：典型RT是24±1℃，和典型的湿度为45％±13％（在夏天更高）;对于这里报告的装置，所述值分别为24.6℃和&lt;30％，分别为。 </li></ol></li></ol> 7.沉积锌（O，S）/ ZnO缓冲层注意：在一个用于SnS的生长通过ALD同一ALD处理室中执行该步骤。 <ol><li>长出的Zn（O，S）：N层通过ALD。 <ol><li>保持在120℃的基板温度。 </li><li>生长的Zn（O，S）：N通过ALD从二乙基锌的（锌（C 2 H 5）2，DEZ），去离子水（H 2 O），4％的H 2 S在N 2和氨的反应（NH 3）11。存储起泡，包含3宁DEZ在RT。使用一个周期序列[DEZ-H 2 O-DEZ-NH 3] 14 - [DEZ-H 2 S] 1，重复这个超级循环12次。确保氨曝光11秒托。 </li><li>检查，在所得膜的S / Zn的比率为0.14，如通过卢瑟福背散射光谱学12测定，该膜的厚度为约36纳米。 </li></ol></li><li>生长ZnO层通过ALD。 <ol><li>保持在120℃的基板温度。 </li><li>生长的ZnO与DEZ-H 2 O的50 ALD循环 注意：得到的ZnO膜的厚度为约18纳米。 </li></ol></li></ol> 8.沉积的透明导电氧化物的（TCO），氧化​​铟锡（ITO）的<ol><li>切从0.024 ITO荫罩“使用实验室激光切割机（610微米）铝板材6061。 注：面具定义是0.25厘米2 11的矩形设备大小加在一个角较大垫是用于光反射的测量，参见图4。 </li><li>安装设备和口罩的掩模对准。 注意：这是在铝板具有嵌套口袋用于衬底和掩模和夹子来固定掩模在适当位置。 </li><li> ITO存款反应磁控溅射。 <ol><li>加热衬底至约80 - 90℃，使基板旋转。 </li><li>使用一个直径为2英寸的ITO靶（的In 2 O 3 / SnO 2的90/10重量％，99.99％纯）在65瓦RF溅射功率为40 / 0.1标准立方厘米的Ar / O 2气体流量在4毫乇的总压力。 </li><li>长出了240纳米厚的ITO膜。 注意：对于这些参数，为0.5埃/秒和薄层电阻的范围增长率40 - 60Ω/□得以实现。 </li></ol></li></ol> 9.金属化<ol><li>从127微米厚的奥斯汀切割金属荫罩ITIC不锈钢板材。 注意：这些面具是由一家商业公司切断与+ 10 / -5微米的公差。金属图案由2个手指1.5mm的分离，每组7毫米长，和一个1×1毫米2接触垫， 见图4。 </li><li>安装的装置和口罩的掩模对准，如在步骤8.2。 </li><li>存款银（为TE设备）或Ni / Al为（对于ALD设备）通过电子束蒸发。 <ol><li>安装掩模对准到一个电子束金属蒸发系统的衬底板。抽空至低于1×10 -6乇的基础压力。 </li><li>蒸发金属以2埃/秒的速率。存500纳米金属总厚度。 </li></ol></li></ol> 10.器件特性<ol><li>在黑暗中和在AM1.5模拟太阳光线的所有设备- （“V J”）的测量进行电流-电压。 <ol><li> V数据FR -通过收集Ĵ校准太阳模拟器嗡一个校准的硅太阳能电池和调节所述太阳模拟器的灯功率和高直到达到为AM1.5太阳辐射的校准的电流值。 </li><li>通过使用铍铜双探头尖端接触到两个顶（阳极，银或铝）和底部（阴极，钼）层接触四线模式的设备。联系底层由刮掉缓冲和SNS层用手术刀刀片。 </li><li>测量光与暗的J -使用源米的由采购电压和电流测量V数据。 注：设备通常的范围内测量±0.5 V.该装置不响应于所述电压扫描的方向或速率。在常规试验的区域限定光孔不使用时，看到更多细节讨论部分。 </li></ol></li><li>在所有设备上执行的外部量子效率（EQE）的测量，带可变灯光和偏压。 <ol><li>通过测量respo校准EQE系统NSE一个硅光电二极管校准的。 注：该软件这些数据与NIST支持的标准进行相应的调整光量进行测量比较。 </li><li>使用四线方法中，如在步骤10.1.2接触的设备。 </li><li>使用商业系统，该系统照射单色光样品切碎，在100赫兹以上270 1100纳米的波长范围内，并测量所产生的电流测量的EQE。根据制造商的标准操作程序进行该测量。 </li><li>重复EQE测量可变电压和白光偏见。使用源表，以提供电压偏置，和卤灯提供的光偏置。测量正向设备和反向电压偏置，并根据可变白色光强度可达〜1太阳。 </li><li>测量使用分光光度计用积分球以在ITO上表面的光学反射率（％R）转换成外部到内部量子效率（IQE）。根据制造商的标准操作程序进行该测量。 </li></ol></li></ol>

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基材的选择清洗 氧化Si晶片用作衬底。所述底物是用于将所得的太阳能电池的机械支撑，和它们的电学性能并不重要。硅片是首选，因为玻璃市场购买硅晶片通常比商业购买玻璃晶片清洗剂，这可以节省时间，基板清洗。 Si衬底还具有比玻璃，从而导致生长和退火过程中加热更均匀的导热性。与商购的玻璃晶片，发现有必要清洗用洗涤剂的基材，包括一个手动擦...

薄膜光伏（PV）继续吸引兴趣和显著研究活动。然而，光伏市场的经济正在迅速转变，发展商业成功的薄膜光伏已经成为一个更具挑战性的前景。在片为基础的技术制造的成本优势不再是理所当然 ​​的，并提高效率和成本必须寻求平等1,2鉴于这种现实，我们选择开发的SnS作为吸收材料的薄膜光伏。 SnS的有可能转化为低制造成本的内在实用性强等优点。如果高的效率可以证明，它可以被认为是一个简易替换为CdTe的商用薄膜PV。这里，对于最近报道记录的SnS太阳能电池的制造过程是证明。我们专注于实际问题，如基材的选择，沉积条件，设备布局和测量协议。 的SnS由无毒，地球丰富和价廉的元件（锡和硫）。的SnS是惰性和不溶性半固体（矿物名Herzenbergite）为1.1电子伏特的间接带隙，强的光吸收与能量光子以上1.4电子伏特（α&gt; 10 4 -1），和固有P型导电率与载流子浓度在范围10月15日至 10月一十七日cm -3的3 - 7重要的是，SnS的蒸发的同成分，是相稳定到600℃的8,9-这意味着SnS的可通过热蒸发（TE）和它的高沉积。 - 速度表弟，封闭空间升华（CSS），如采用碲化镉太阳能电池的制造。这也意味着，SnS的相位控制远比大多数薄膜PV材料更简单，特别是包括铜（在，Ga）的（S，硒）2（CIGS）和Cu 2 ZnSnS 4（CZTS）。因此，细胞EFFICIENCY代表的主要障碍SnS的光伏商业化，和SNS可以被认为是一个简易替换的碲化镉一次高效率的证明在实验室规模。然而，这种效率的障碍不能被夸大。我们估计，在记录效率，必须由四个因素增加，从〜4％至〜15％，以刺激商业开发。显影的SnS作为高品质的SnS薄膜的简易替换为碲化镉也将需要生长的CSS，和其上的SnS可以直接生长的n型伙伴材料的发展。 下面描述的步骤的分步过程，使用两种不同的沉积技术，原子层沉积（ALD）和TE制造记录的SnS太阳能电池。 ALD是一个缓慢增长的方法，但至今已取得最高效率的设备。 TE是更快和工业上可伸缩，但滞后的ALD在效率。除了不同的SnS沉积方法中，TE和ALD太阳能电池退火，表面钝化，和金属化的步骤稍有不同。器件制造步骤被列举在图1中。 描述手术后，检测结果为认证记录设备和相关样品展示。在创纪录的业绩已有报道。这里的重点是对结果的典型处理运行的分布。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" >
	
	<tbody>
		<tr >
			<td >Quartz wafer carrier</td>
			<td >AM Quartz, Gainesville, TX</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td >bespoke design</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Sputtering system</td>
			<td >PVD Products</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>High vacuum sputtering system with load lock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >4% H2S in N2</td>
			<td >Airgas Inc.</td>
			<td>X02NI96C33A5626</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >99.5% H2S</td>
			<td >Matheson Trigas</td>
			<td>G1540250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >SnS powder</td>
			<td >Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>741000-5G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Effusion cell</td>
			<td >Veeco</td>
			<td>35-LT</td>
			<td>Low temperature, single filament effusion cell</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >diethylzinc (Zn(C2H5)2)</td>
			<td>Strem Chemicals</td>
			<td>93-3030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Laser cutter</td>
			<td>Electrox</td>
			<td >Scorpian G2</td>
			<td>Used for ITO shadow masks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >ITO sputtering target (In2O3/SnO2 90/10 wt.%, 99.99% pure)</td>
			<td >Kurt J. Lesker</td>
			<td>EJTITOX402A4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Metallization shadow masks</td>
			<td>MicroConnex</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>bespoke design</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Electron Beam Evaporator</td>
			<td>Denton</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>High vacuum metals evaporator with load-lock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >AM1.5 solar simulator</td>
			<td >Newport Oriel</td>
			<td align="right">91194</td>
			<td>1300 W Xe-lamp using an AM1.5G filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td >Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>Lambda 950 UV-Vis-NIR</td>
			<td>150mm Spectralon-coated integrating sphere</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Calibrated Si solar cell</td>
			<td >PV Measurements</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>BK-7 window glass</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Double probe tips</td>
			<td >Accuprobe</td>
			<td >K1C8C1F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Souce-meter</td>
			<td >Keithley</td>
			<td align="right" >2400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Quantum efficiency measurement system</td>
			<td >PV Measurements</td>
			<td>QEX7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Calibrated Si photodiode</td>
			<td >PV Measurements</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >High-throughput solar cell test station</td>
			<td >PV Measurements</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>bespoke design</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Inert pump oil</td>
			<td >DuPont</td>
			<td >Krytox</td>
			<td>PFPE oil, grade 1514; vendor: Eastern Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >H2S resistant elastomer o-rings</td>
			<td >DuPont</td>
			<td>Kalrez</td>
			<td>compound 7075; vendor: Marco Rubber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >H2S resistant elastomer o-rings</td>
			<td >Marco Rubber</td>
			<td >Markez</td>
			<td>compound Z1028</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >H2S resistant elastomer o-rings</td>
			<td>Seals Eastern, Inc.</td>
			<td >Aflas</td>
			<td>vendor: Marco Rubber</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

making record-efficiency sns solar cells by thermal evaporation and atomic layer deposition

锡硫化物（SNS）是候选吸收材料对于地球丰富的，无毒的太阳能电池。 SnS的提供方便的相位控制和全等热蒸发的快速增长，而且吸收可见光强烈。然而，很长一段时间的SnS太阳能电池的创纪录的功率转换效率保持在2％以下。最近，我们证明了4.36％，采用SNS沉积通过原子层沉积的新纪录认证的效率，并采用热蒸发3.88％。这里对这些记录的太阳能电池的制造过程进行说明，并在制造过程中的统计分布的报道。在单个衬底上测量的效率的标准偏差是通常超过0.5％。所有步骤，包括衬底的选择和清洗，钼溅射后接触（阴极），SNS沉积，退火，表面钝化，锌（O，S）缓冲层的选择和沉积，透明导体（阳极）沉积和金属化描述。在每一基底我们制造11各个装置，每个有源区0.25厘米2。此外，对于电流 - 电压曲线之下模拟太阳光高吞吐量的测量，和外部量子效率的测量与可变轻偏压的系统进行说明。有了这个系统，我们能够测量以自动的方式在最短的时间内对所有11台设备完整的数据集。这些结果说明学习大样本组，而不是狭隘专注于最高性能的设备的价值。大型数据集帮助我们辨别和消除影响我们的设备单项损失的机制。

在图如上所述6-8的结果显示了两种具有代表性的“基线”TE生长样本。照射的J - V数据为这两个样品是绘制在图6中的第一样本（“SnS140203F”）得到该装置用的3.88％认证效率先前报道9代表合营分布也示每个样品。对于给定的偏置电压，这些分布被计算为<img alt="式（1）" src="/files/ftp_upload/52705/52705eq1.jpg" />其中&lt;J&gt;时是测量?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Making Record-efficiency SnS Solar Cells by Thermal Evaporation and Atomic Layer Deposition at JoVE.com

Making Record-efficiency SnS Solar Cells by Thermal Evaporation and Atomic Layer Deposition

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication procedure of the SnS solar cells employing atomic layer deposition, which yields 4.36% certified power conversion efficiency, and thermal evaporation which yields 3.88%.

通过热蒸发和原子层沉积使记录效率的SnS太阳能电池

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate absorber material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. SnS offers easy phase control and rapid growth by congruent ...

making-record-efficiency-sns-solar-cells-thermal-evaporation-atomic

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

42.6K 次观看.  Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication procedure of the SnS solar cells employing atomic layer deposition, which yields 4.36% certified power conversion efficiency, and thermal evaporation which yields 3.88%.

视频: Making Record-efficiency SnS Solar Cells by Thermal Evaporation and Atomic Layer Deposition

Harvesting Solar Energy by Means of Charge-Separating Nanocrystals and Their Solids

Conjoining different semiconductor materials in a single nano-composite provides synthetic means for the development of novel optoelectronic materials offering a superior control over the spatial distribution of charge carriers across material interfaces. As this study demonstrates, a combination of donor-acceptor nanocrystal (NC) domains in a single nanoparticle can lead to the realization of efficient photocatalytic1-5 materials, while a layered assembly of donor- and acceptor-like nanocrystals films gives rise to photovoltaic materials.
Initially the paper focuses on the synthesis of composite inorganic nanocrystals, comprising linearly stacked ZnSe, CdS, and Pt domains, which jointly promote photoinduced charge separation. These structures are used in aqueous solutions for the photocatalysis of water under solar radiation, resulting in the production of H2 gas. To enhance the photoinduced separation of charges, a nanorod morphology with a linear gradient originating from an intrinsic electric field is used5. The inter-domain energetics are then optimized to drive photogenerated electrons toward the Pt catalytic site while expelling the holes to the surface of ZnSe domains for sacrificial regeneration (via methanol). Here we show that the only efficient way to produce hydrogen is to use electron-donating ligands to passivate the surface states by tuning the energy level alignment at the semiconductor-ligand interface. Stable and efficient reduction of water is allowed by these ligands due to the fact that they fill vacancies in the valence band of the semiconductor domain, preventing energetic holes from degrading it. Specifically, we show that the energy of the hole is transferred to the ligand moiety, leaving the semiconductor domain functional. This enables us to return the entire nanocrystal-ligand system to a functional state, when the ligands are degraded, by simply adding fresh ligands to the system4.
To promote a photovoltaic charge separation, we use a composite two-layer solid of PbS and TiO2 films. In this configuration, photoinduced electrons are injected into TiO2 and are subsequently picked up by an FTO electrode, while holes are channeled to a Au electrode via PbS layer6. To develop the latter we introduce a Semiconductor Matrix Encapsulated Nanocrystal Arrays (SMENA) strategy, which allows bonding PbS NCs into the surrounding matrix of CdS semiconductor. As a result, fabricated solids exhibit excellent thermal stability, attributed to the heteroepitaxial structure of nanocrystal-matrix interfaces, and show compelling light-harvesting performance in prototype solar cells7.

A general strategy for the development of charge-separating semiconductor nanocrystal composites deployable for solar energy production is presented. We show that assembly of donor-acceptor nanocrystal domains in a single nanoparticle geometry gives rise to a photocatalytic function, while bulk-heterojunctions of donor-acceptor nanocrystal films can be used for photovoltaic energy conversion.

通过电荷分离纳米晶及其固体收获太阳能

Conjoining different semiconductor materials in a single nano-composite provides synthetic means for the development of novel optoelectronic materials ...

科研

工程学

Fabrication of Nano-engineered Transparent Conducting Oxides by Pulsed Laser Deposition

Nanosecond Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) in the presence of a background gas allows the deposition of metal oxides with tunable morphology, structure, density and stoichiometry by a proper control of the plasma plume expansion dynamics. Such versatility can be exploited to produce nanostructured films from compact and dense to nanoporous characterized by a hierarchical assembly of nano-sized clusters. In particular we describe the detailed methodology to fabricate two types of Al-doped ZnO (AZO) films as transparent electrodes in photovoltaic devices: 1) at low O2 pressure, compact films with electrical conductivity and optical transparency close to the state of the art transparent conducting oxides (TCO) can be deposited at room temperature, to be compatible with thermally sensitive materials such as polymers used in organic photovoltaics (OPVs); 2) highly light scattering hierarchical structures resembling a forest of nano-trees are produced at higher pressures. Such structures show high Haze factor (&gt;80%) and may be exploited to enhance the light trapping capability. The method here described for AZO films can be applied to other metal oxides relevant for technological applications such as TiO2, Al2O3, WO3 and Ag4O4.

We describe the experimental method to deposit nanostructured oxide thin films by nanosecond Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) in the presence of a background gas. By using this method Al-doped ZnO (AZO) films, from compact to hierarchically structured as nano-tree forests, can be deposited.

制备纳米设计的脉冲激光沉积透明导电氧化物

Nanosecond Pulsed  Laser Deposition (PLD) in the presence of a background gas allows the deposition  of metal oxides with tunable morphology, structure, ...

Integration of Light Trapping Silver Nanostructures in Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon Solar Cells by Transfer Printing

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly known as plasmonic effects, play an important role. Research in this field has, however, been impeded owing to the difficulty of fabricating devices containing the desired functional metal nanostructures. In order to provide a viable strategy to this issue, we herein show a transfer printing-based approach that allows the quick and low-cost integration of designed metal nanostructures with a variety of device architectures, including solar cells. Nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamps were fabricated from a commercially available nanohole plastic film as a master mold. On this nanopatterned PDMS stamps, Ag films were deposited, which were then transfer-printed onto block copolymer (binding layer)-coated hydrogenated microcrystalline Si (&#181;c-Si:H) surface to afford ordered Ag nanodisk structures. It was confirmed that the resulting Ag nanodisk-incorporated &#181;c-Si:H solar cells show higher performances compared to a cell without the transfer-printed Ag nanodisks, thanks to plasmonic light trapping effect derived from the Ag nanodisks. Because of the simplicity and versatility, further device application would also be feasible thorough this approach.

A viable transfer printing-based methodology to introduce plasmonic metal nanostructures in solar cells is described. Using nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) stamps, an Ag-based ordered nanodisk array was integrated with standard hydrogenated microcrystalline Si solar cells, which led to improved device performances due to plasmonic light trapping.

灯光诱杀银纳米结构通过转移印花在氢化微晶硅太阳能电池集成

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly ...

Seedless Growth of Bismuth Nanowire Array via Vacuum Thermal Evaporation

Here a seedless and template-free technique is demonstrated to scalably grow bismuth nanowires, through thermal evaporation in high vacuum at RT. Conventionally reserved for the fabrication of metal thin films, thermal evaporation deposits bismuth into an array of vertical single crystalline nanowires over a flat thin film of vanadium held at RT, which is freshly deposited by magnetron sputtering or thermal evaporation. By controlling the temperature of the growth substrate the length and width of the nanowires can be tuned over a wide range. Responsible for this novel technique is a previously unknown nanowire growth mechanism that roots in the mild porosity of the vanadium thin film. Infiltrated into the vanadium pores, the bismuth domains (~ 1 nm) carry excessive surface energy that suppresses their melting point and continuously expels them out of the vanadium matrix to form nanowires. This discovery demonstrates the feasibility of scalable vapor phase synthesis of high purity nanomaterials without using any catalysts.

A protocol for seedless and high yield growth of bismuth nanowire arrays through vacuum thermal evaporation technique is presented.

铋纳米线阵列通过真空热蒸发无核增长

Here a seedless and template-free technique is demonstrated to scalably grow bismuth nanowires, through thermal evaporation in high vacuum at RT. ...

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices have used devices prepared by spin coating, a process that is not amenable to large-scale fabrication. This mismatch in device fabrication makes it difficult to translate quantitative results obtained in the laboratory to the commercial level, making optimization difficult. Using a mini-slot die coater, this mismatch can be resolved by translating the commercial process to the laboratory and characterizing the structure formation in the active layer of the device in real time and in situ as films are coated onto a substrate. The evolution of the morphology was characterized under different conditions, allowing us to propose a mechanism by which the structures form and grow. This mini-slot die coater offers a simple, convenient, material efficient route by which the morphology in the active layer can be optimized under industrially relevant conditions. The goal of this protocol is to show experimental details of how a solar cell device is fabricated using a mini-slot die coater and technical details of running in situ structure characterization using the mini-slot die coater.

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Here, we present a protocol to fabricate organic thin film solar cells using a mini-slot die coater and related in-line structure characterizations using synchrotron scattering techniques.

散装异质结太阳能电池的印刷和制作<em&gt;原位</em&gt;形态特征

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices ...

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

Here, we demonstrate the incorporation of monovalent cation additives into CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite in order to adjust the optical, excitonic, and electrical properties. The possibility of doping was investigated by adding monovalent cation halides with similar ionic radii to Pb2+, including Cu+, Na+, and Ag+. A shift in the Fermi level and a remarkable decrease of sub-bandgap optical absorption, along with a lower energetic disorder in the perovskite, was achieved. An order-of-magnitude enhancement in the bulk hole mobility and a significant reduction of transport activation energy within an additive-based perovskite device was attained. The confluence of the aforementioned improved properties in the presence of these cations led to an enhancement in the photovoltaic parameters of the perovskite solar cell. An increase of 70 mV in open circuit voltage for AgI and a 2 mA/cm2 improvement in photocurrent density for NaI- and CuBr-based solar cells were achieved compared to the pristine device. Our work paves the way for further improvements in the optoelectronic quality of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite and subsequent devices. It highlights a new avenue for investigations on the role of dopant impurities in crystallization and controls the electronic defect density in perovskite structures.

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

Here, we present a protocol to adjust the properties of solution-processed CH3NH3PbI3 through the incorporation of monovalent cation additives in order to achieve highly efficient perovskite solar cells.

CH的单价阳离子兴奋剂<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt; NH<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt;碘化铅<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt;对钙钛矿型高效太阳能电池

Here, we demonstrate the incorporation of monovalent cation additives into CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite in order to adjust the optical, excitonic, and electrical ...

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Solar Cells

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction of degradation mechanisms and prevention of module field failure can consequently decrease investment risks as well as increase the electricity yield. An improved knowledge level can for these reasons significantly decrease the total costs of PV electricity. 
In order to better understand and minimize the degradation of PV modules, the occurring degradation mechanisms and conditions should be identified. This should preferably happen under combined stresses, since modules in the field are also simultaneously exposed to multiple stress factors. Therefore, two 'Combined Stress test with in situ measurement' setups have been designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, illumination, and electrical biases as independently controlled stress factors on solar cells and minimodules. The setups also allow real-time monitoring of the electrical properties of these samples. This protocol presents these setups and describes the experimental possibilities. Moreover, results obtained with these setups are also presented: various examples about the influence of both deposition and degradation conditions on the stability of thin film Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) as well as Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTS) solar cells are described. Results on the temperature dependency of CIGS solar cells are also presented.

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for CuIn,GaSe2 Solar Cells

Two &#39;Combined Stress test with in situ measurement&#39; setups, which allow real-time monitoring of accelerated degradation of solar cells and modules, were designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, electrical biases, and illumination as independently controlled stress factors. The setups and various experiments executed are presented.

就地太阳能电池和模块加速性能退化的监测: 铜 (in, Ga) Se2太阳能电池的实例研究

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction ...

Well-aligned Vertically Oriented ZnO Nanorod Arrays and their Application in Inverted Small Molecule Solar Cells

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted solar cells, which are based on a two-dimensional conjugated small molecule (SMPV1) and [6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC71BM), by utilizing ZnO nanorods (NRs) grown on a high quality Al-doped ZnO (AZO) seed layer. The inverted SMPV1:PC71BM solar cells with ZnO NRs that grew on both a sputtered and sol-gel processed AZO seed layer are fabricated. Compared with the AZO thin film prepared by the sol-gel method, the sputtered AZO thin film exhibits better crystallization and lower surface roughness, according to X-ray diffraction (XRD) and atomic force microscope (AFM) measurements. The orientation of the ZnO NRs grown on a sputtered AZO seed layer shows better vertical alignment, which is beneficial for the deposition of the subsequent active layer, forming better surface morphologies. Generally, the surface morphology of the active layer mainly dominates the fill factor (FF) of the devices. Consequently, the well-aligned ZnO NRs can be used to improve the carrier collection of the active layer and to increase the FF of the solar cells. Moreover, as an anti-reflection structure, it can also be utilized to enhance the light harvesting of the absorption layer, with the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of solar cells reaching 6.01%, higher than the sol-gel based solar cells with an efficiency of 4.74%.

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted SMPV1:PC71BM solar cells with ZnO nanorods (NRs) grown on a high quality Al-doped ZnO (AZO) seed layer. The well-aligned vertically oriented ZnO NRs exhibit high crystalline properties. The power conversion efficiency of solar cells can reach 6.01%.

定向定向 ZnO 纳米阵列及其在倒小分子太阳电池中的应用

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted solar cells, which are based on a two-dimensional conjugated small molecule ...

Production of Single Tracks of Ti-6Al-4V by Directed Energy Deposition to Determine the Layer Thickness for Multilayer Deposition

Directed Energy Deposition (DED), which is an additive manufacturing technique, involves the creation of a molten pool with a laser beam where metal powder is injected as particles. In general, this technique is employed to either fabricate or repair different components. In this technique, the final characteristics are affected by many factors. Indeed, one of the main tasks in building components by DED is the optimization of process parameters (such as laser power, laser speed, focus, etc.) which is usually carried out through an extensive experimental investigation. However, this sort of experiment is extremely lengthy and costly. Thus, in order to accelerate the optimization process, an investigation was conducted to develop a method based on the melt pool characterizations. In fact, in these experiments, single tracks of Ti-6Al-4V were deposited by a DED process with multiple combinations of laser power and laser speed. Surface morphology and dimensions of single tracks were analyzed, and geometrical characteristics of melt pools were evaluated after polishing and etching the cross-sections. Helpful information regarding the selection of optimal process parameters can be achieved by examining the melt pool features. These experiments are being extended to characterize the larger blocks with multiple layers. Indeed, this manuscript describes how it would be possible to quickly determine the layer thickness for the massive deposition, and avoid over or under-deposition according to the calculated energy density of the optimum parameters. Apart from the over or under-deposition, time and materials saving are the other great advantages of this approach in which the deposition of multilayer components can be started without any parameter optimization in terms of layer thickness.

In this research, a rapid method based on melt pool characterization is developed to estimate the layer thickness of Ti-6Al-4V components produced by directed energy deposition.

用定向能沉积法生产 Ti-6Al-4V 层厚度的单车道多层沉积

Directed Energy Deposition (DED), which is an additive manufacturing technique, involves the creation of a molten pool with a laser beam where metal ...

Atomic Layer Deposition of Vanadium Dioxide and a Temperature-dependent Optical Model

Vanadium dioxide is a material that has a reversible metal-insulator phase change near 68 &#176;C. To grow VO2 on a wide variety of substrates, with wafer-scale uniformity and angstrom level control of thickness, the method of atomic-layer deposition was chosen. This ALD process enables high-quality, low-temperature (&#8804;150 &#176;C) growth of ultrathin films (100-1000 &#197;) of VO2. For this demonstration, the VO2 films were grown on sapphire substrates. This low temperature growth technique produces mostly amorphous VO2 films. A subsequent anneal in an ultra-high vacuum chamber with a pressure of 7x10-4 Pa of ultra-high purity (99.999%) oxygen produced oriented, polycrystalline VO2 films. The crystallinity, phase, and strain of the VO2 were determined by Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, while the stoichiometry and impurity levels were determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and finally the morphology was determined by atomic force microscopy. These data demonstrate the high-quality of the films grown by this technique. A model was created to fit to the data for VO2 in its metallic and insulating phases in the near infrared spectral region. The permittivity and refractive index of the ALD VO2 agreed well with the other fabrication methods in its insulating phase, but showed a difference in its metallic state. Finally, the analysis of the films&#39; optical properties enabled the creation of a wavelength- and temperature-dependent model of the complex optical refractive index for developing VO2 as a tunable refractive index material.

Thin films (100-1000 &#197;) of vanadium dioxide (VO2) were created by atomic-layer deposition (ALD) on sapphire substrates. Following this, the optical properties were characterized through the metal-insulator transition of VO2. From the measured optical properties, a model was created to describe the tunable refractive index of VO2.

二氧化钒原子层沉积与温度依赖性光学模型

Vanadium dioxide is a material that has a reversible metal-insulator phase change near 68 &#176;C. To grow VO2 on a wide variety of substrates, with ...