Name: genome-wide determination of mammalian replication timing by dna content measurement
Uploaded: 2017-01-19T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Genome-wide Determination of Mammalian Replication Timing by DNA Content Measurement at JoVE.com

We thank Oriya Vardi for assistance in generating figures. Work in the IS group was supported by the Israel Science Foundation (grant No. 567/10) and the European Research Council Starting Grant (#281306).

Note: ToR can be measured only on growing, unsynchronized cells. The procedure should begin with at least 1 - 2 x 106 fast growing cells, which will usually result in ~1 x 105 cells in S phase (the rate limiting step). It is recommended to conduct each experiment using two or three replicates. The entire process of CNR-ToR can be completed within one week &#8212; two days should be dedicated to all steps up to library preparation, one to two days are needed for sequencing and an additional day is ne...

<ol>
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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complex+correlations:+replication+timing+and+mutational+landscapes+during+cancer+and+genome+evolution.">Complex correlations: replication timing and mutational landscapes during cancer and genome evolution.</a> Curr Opin Genet Dev. 25, 93-100 (2014).</li><li>Kenigsberg, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mutation+spectrum+in+genomic+late+replication+domains+shapes+mammalian+GC+content.">The mutation spectrum in genomic late replication domains shapes mammalian GC content.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 44 (9), 4222-4232 (2016).</li><li>Woo, Y. H., Li, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+replication+timing+and+selection+shape+the+landscape+of+nucleotide+variation+in+cancer+genomes.">DNA replication timing and selection shape the landscape of nucleotide variation in cancer genomes.</a> Nat Commun. 3, 1004 (2012).</li><li>Liu, L., De, S., Michor, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+replication+timing+and+higher-order+nuclear+organization+determine+single-nucleotide+substitution+patterns+in+cancer+genomes.">DNA replication timing and higher-order nuclear organization determine single-nucleotide substitution patterns in cancer genomes.</a> Nat Commun. 4, 1502 (2013).</li><li>Goren, A., Cedar, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Replicating+by+the+clock.">Replicating by the clock.</a> Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 4 (1), 25-32 (2003).</li><li>Selig, S., Okumura, K., Ward, D. 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CNR-ToR can be performed in principle on any eukaryotic proliferating cell population that can be divided by FACS to S and G1 phases (reviewed by Rhind N. and Gilbert DM20). The method described here has been adjusted to mammalian cells with a genome size of ~3 Gb such as human and mouse. Small changes in the CNR-ToR protocol (in cell preparation and sequencing depth) are needed, in order to adjust it to other eukaryotes. Attention must be paid to the collection of sufficient amounts of S phase ce...

Mammalian DNA replication is tightly regulated to ensure the precise replication of each chromosome exactly once during the cell cycle. Replication occurs according to a highly regulated order &#8212; multiple large genomic regions (~Mb) replicate at the beginning of S phase (early replicating domains) whereas other genomic regions replicate later at middle or late S phase (middle and late replicating domains)1. Most of the genome replicates at the same time in all tissues (constitutive ToR domains), whereas 30% - 50% of the genome, changes its ToR between tissues2, during differentiation3,4 and to a lesser extent also during cancer transformation5. Moreover, certain genomic regions replicate asynchronously6,7,8, namely there is a difference in the ToR between the two alleles.
ToR correlates with many genomic and epigenomic features including transcription levels, GC content, chromatin state, gene density, etc.1,9. ToR is also associated with mutation rates and types10,11 and therefore unsurprisingly, perturbations of the replication program are linked to cancer12,13. The causal relationship between ToR and chromatin structure is not yet understood. It is possible that open chromatin facilitates early replication. However, an alternative model suggests that the chromatin is assembled during replication and the different chromatin regulators present at the beginning and end of S phase lead to differential packaging of early and late replicating regions1,14. We have recently shown that the ToR shapes the GC content by affecting the type of mutations that occur in different genomic regions11.
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is the main method for measuring ToR at individual loci. It is performed simply by counting the percentage of S phase cells that exhibit single FISH signals vs. the percentage of doublets for a given allele15,16. An alternative method, consists of pulse labeling the DNA with BrdU, sorting cells according to their DNA content to multiple time points along S, immunoprecipitating DNA containing BrdU, and checking the abundance of precipitated DNA with qPCR17.
Genomic ToR mapping can be achieved by two methods. The first method is a genomic version of the BrdU-IP based method described above, in which the quantification of the amount of precipitated DNA in each fraction is done simultaneously for the entire genome through hybridization to microarrays or by deep sequencing. The second method, CNR-ToR, is based on measuring the copy number of each genomic region of S phase cells and normalizing by the DNA content in G1 cells. In this method, cells are sorted by FACS into non-replicating (G1 phase) and replicating (S phase) groups (Figure 1). Cells in G1 have the same copy number in all genomic regions and thus their DNA content should be the same. On the other hand, the DNA copy number in S depends on the ToR, since early replicating regions underwent replication in most cells and therefore their DNA content is doubled, whereas late replicating regions have not replicated yet in most cells and therefore their DNA content will be similar to that of G1 cells. Hence the S to G1 ratio of DNA content is indicative of the ToR. The amount of DNA for each genomic region is measured either by hybridization to microarrays or by deep sequencing2,8. The advantages of the CNR-ToR method will be further discussed.
This paper describes the CNR-ToR method for genomic ToR mapping as described in Figure 2. The paper discusses the fine details of the entire process from collecting cells until the basic analysis of the results and the creation of genomic ToR maps. The protocol described in this paper has been successfully performed on various cell types grown in culture. Future improvements of this protocol can lead to the mapping of the ToR in vivo and in rare cell types.

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genome-wide determination of mammalian replication timing by dna content measurement

Replication of the genome occurs during S phase of the cell cycle in a highly regulated process that ensures the fidelity of DNA duplication. Each genomic region is replicated at a distinct time during S phase through the simultaneous activation of multiple origins of replication. Time of replication (ToR) correlates with many genomic and epigenetic features and is linked to mutation rates and cancer. Comprehending the full genomic view of the replication program, in health and disease is a major future goal and challenge.
This article describes in detail the &#34;Copy Number Ratio of S/G1 for mapping genomic Time of Replication&#34; method (herein called: CNR-ToR), a simple approach to map the genome wide ToR of mammalian cells. The method is based on the copy number differences between S phase cells and G1 phase cells. The CNR-ToR method is performed in 6 steps: 1. Preparation of cells and staining with propidium iodide (PI); 2. Sorting G1 and S phase cells using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS); 3. DNA purification; 4. Sonication; 5. Library preparation and sequencing; and 6. Bioinformatic analysis. The CNR-ToR method is a fast and easy approach that results in detailed replication maps.

A typical ToR map is shown in Figure 3 for mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). This figure demonstrates the analysis process since it shows both the dots, which are the normalized S/G1 ratio for individual windows (step 8.3), as well as the line which results from the cubic smoothing and interpolation (step 8.5).
Such maps capture the organization of the replication program, which is a patchwork of two types of ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Genome-wide Determination of Mammalian Replication Timing by DNA Content Measurement at JoVE.com

Genome-wide Determination of Mammalian Replication Timing by DNA Content Measurement

We describe here a relatively fast and simple approach for mapping genome-wide mammalian replication timing, from cell isolation to the basic analysis of the sequencing results. A genomic map of a representative replication program will be provided following the protocol.

Replication of the genome occurs during S phase of the cell cycle in a highly regulated process that ensures the fidelity of DNA duplication. Each genomic ...

The overall goal of this procedure, is to map the genome-wide replication timing program of a cell of choice. This method can help answer key questions in the replication field. Such as, how the genomic replication program changes in health and disease.The main advantage of this technique is that it is a fast and simple way to map replication timing in various cells, and conditions. The man writing the fax procedure would be Dan Lehmann, a fax expert in The Faculty of Medicine. This procedure usually starts with at least one to two times ten to the sixth fast growing unsynchronized cells.For adherent cells, aspirate and wash each plate with three milliliters of PBS without calcium of magnesium. Discard the PBS and add one milliliter of commercial Trypsin-EDTA to each plate. Incubate the cells for five minutes, at 37 degrees Celsius, until they detach.Add three milliliters of culture media to neutralize the Trypsin and collect the cells in a 15 milliliter conical tube or a five milliliter polystyrene tube. Keep the cells on ice. To begin theisprocedure, centrifuge the cells at 300 x G for five minutes at four degrees Celsius.Aspirate and wash the cells with one milliliter of cold PBS. Then, spin down the cells. After the second wash, remove the PBS and resuspend the cells in 250 microliters of cold PBS.While gently vortexing the tube, slowly add drop wise 800 microliters of minus 20 degree Celsius, 100 percent high purity ethanol. This leads to our final ethanol concentration of 70 to 80 percent. Incubate the cells on ice for 30 minutes.Begin this procedure by centrifuging the fixed cells at 500 x G for ten minutes at 4 degrees Celsius. Aspirate the supernatant carefully and wash the cells twice with one milliliter of cold PBS. Spin down after each wash.After the second wash, aspirate the supernatant and resuspend each cell with the following PI mixture. One milliliter of PBS containing five microliters of ten milligram per milliliter RNAas, and 50 microliters of one milligram per milliliter propidium iodide. Filter the sample through a 35 micrometer mesh into a 5 milliliter polystyrene tube.Seal the tube with parafilm. Incubate at room temperature for 15 to 30 minutes. Keep the samples in the dark as propidium iodide is light sensitive.The cells will be sorted using a fax machine. Use the 561 nanometer laser to differentiate cells based on their propidium iodide intensity. For optimal results, use the smallest nozzle recommended for the specific cell size.For most cells, it is 85 micrometers. Use a steady, slow flow. Usually up to 300 to 500 events per second.Using Gating, discriminate dead cells and subcellular debris by plotting FCS versus SSC. From the viable cells, discriminate doublets by plotting SSC width versus SSC height, followed by an FFC width versus FFC height plot, and a propidium iodide width versus propidium iodide height plot. For the viable signal cells, draw a histogram of the propidium iodide area intensity, which represents the DNA content of the cells.Sort cells in cold conditions into G1 and S phases. Gating for S should be wide and intrude into the G1 and G2 phases. While G1 gating should be narrow and as far from S as possible.For come cell types, it may be hard to get a nice cell cycle distribution. It is most critical to take the G1 phase without S phase cells. Remove tubes with sorted cells from the fax machine.Keep tubes on ice following the sort. Following the cell sorting, the DNA for each sample is purified using a commercial DNA purification kit following the manufacturer's directions. Next, sheer the DNA with a focused ultrasonicator to an average target peak size of 250 base pairs.Verify the size of the sheer DNA by electroforesis. The recommended size distribution is 200 to 700 base pairs with a peak at about 250 base pairs. Subsequently, the library is prepared, sequenced, and analyzed as described in the text protocol.A time of replication map for the entire chromosome one from mouse embryonic fibroblasts is shown. With a closer look at a region of approximately 50 megabases. The dots represent the normalized S to G1 ratio for individual windows, and the solid line represents the results from the cubic smoothly and interpolation.High S to G1 values corresponds to early replication, whereas low values correspond to late replication. The red arrows point to examples of constant time of replication regions, and the green arrows point to temporal transition regions. This figure shows the reproducibility of time of replication maps between triplicates of mouse embryonic fibroblasts, compared to triplicates of mouse pre-B cells in the same 18 megabase region on mouse chromosome one.The orange arrows, point to examples of differential regions between the cell lines. A heat map of the spearman correlations between the six samples further confirm the results. Once mastered, this technique from the collection of cells to the generation of maps, can be completed in one week if performed properly.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to generate time of replication genomic maps for growing cells.

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Genetics

In Situ Labeling of Mitochondrial DNA Replication in Drosophila Adult Ovaries by EdU Staining

The mitochondrial genome is inherited exclusively through the maternal line. Understanding of how the mitochondrion and its genome are proliferated and transmitted from one generation to the next through the female oocyte is of fundamental importance. Because of the genetic tractability, and the elegant, ordered simplicity by which oocyte development proceeds, Drosophila oogenesis has become an invaluable system for mitochondrial study. An EdU (5-ethynyl-2&#180;-deoxyuridine) labeling method was utilized to detect mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) replication in Drosophila ovaries. This method is superior to the BrdU (5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine) labeling method in that it allows for good structural preservation and efficient fluorescent dye penetration of whole-mount tissues.
Here we describe a detailed protocol for labeling replicating mitochondrial DNA in Drosophila adult ovaries with EdU. Some technical solutions are offered to improve the viability of the ovaries, maintain their health during preparation, and ensure high-quality imaging. Visualization of newly synthesized mtDNA in the ovaries not only reveals the striking temporal and spatial pattern of mtDNA replication through oogenesis, but also allows for simple quantification of mtDNA replication under various genetic and pharmacological perturbations.

In Situ Labeling of Mitochondrial DNA Replication in Drosophila Adult Ovaries by EdU Staining

Drosophila oogenesis continues to be exceptionally useful in the study of mitochondrial proliferation and inheritance. This manuscript describes a detailed protocol used to label the replicating mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in Drosophila adult ovaries with 5-ethynyl-2&#180;-deoxyuridine (EdU), which facilitates uncovering mechanisms associated with mitochondrial inheritance that were previously debatable.

The mitochondrial genome is inherited exclusively through the maternal line. Understanding of how the mitochondrion and its genome are proliferated and ...

Kinetics of Lagging-strand DNA Synthesis In Vitro by the Bacteriophage T7 Replication Proteins

Here we provide protocols for the kinetic examination of lagging-strand DNA synthesis in vitro by the replication proteins of bacteriophage T7. The T7 replisome is one of the simplest replication systems known, composed of only four proteins, which is an attractive feature for biochemical experiments. Special emphasis is placed on the synthesis of ribonucleotide primers by the T7 primase-helicase, which are used by DNA polymerase to initiate DNA synthesis. Because the mechanisms of DNA replication are conserved across evolution, these protocols should be applicable, or useful as a conceptual springboard, to investigators using other model systems. The protocols described here are highly sensitive and an experienced investigator can perform these experiments and obtain data for analysis in about a day. The only specialized piece of equipment required is a rapid-quench flow instrument, but this piece of equipment is relatively common and available from various commercial sources. The major drawbacks of these assays, however, include the use of radioactivity and the relative low throughput.

Kinetics of Lagging-strand DNA Synthesis In Vitro by the Bacteriophage T7 Replication Proteins

We describe sensitive, gel-based discontinuous assays to examine the kinetics of lagging-strand initiation using the replication proteins of bacteriophage T7.

Here we provide protocols for the kinetic examination of lagging-strand DNA synthesis in vitro by the replication proteins of bacteriophage T7. The T7 ...

Genome-wide Mapping of Protein-DNA Interactions with ChEC-seq in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Genome-wide mapping of protein-DNA interactions is critical for understanding gene regulation, chromatin remodeling, and other chromatin-resident processes. Formaldehyde crosslinking followed by chromatin immunoprecipitation and high-throughput sequencing (X-ChIP-seq) has been used to gain many valuable insights into genome biology. However, X-ChIP-seq has notable limitations linked to crosslinking and sonication. Native ChIP avoids these drawbacks by omitting crosslinking, but often results in poor recovery of chromatin-bound proteins. In addition, all ChIP-based methods are subject to antibody quality considerations. Enzymatic methods for mapping protein-DNA interactions, which involve fusion of a protein of interest to a DNA-modifying enzyme, have also been used to map protein-DNA interactions. We recently combined one such method, chromatin endogenous cleavage (ChEC), with high-throughput sequencing as ChEC-seq. ChEC-seq relies on fusion of a chromatin-associated protein of interest to micrococcal nuclease (MNase) to generate targeted DNA cleavage in the presence of calcium in living cells. ChEC-seq is not based on immunoprecipitation and so circumvents potential concerns with crosslinking, sonication, chromatin solubilization, and antibody quality while providing high resolution mapping with minimal background signal. We envision that ChEC-seq will be a powerful counterpart to ChIP, providing an independent means by which to both validate ChIP-seq findings and discover new insights into genomic regulation.

Genome-wide Mapping of Protein-DNA Interactions with ChEC-seq in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We describe chromatin endogenous cleavage coupled with high-throughput sequencing (ChEC-seq), a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-orthogonal method for mapping protein binding sites genome-wide with micrococcal nuclease (MNase) fusion proteins.

Genome-wide mapping of protein-DNA interactions is critical for understanding gene regulation, chromatin remodeling, and other chromatin-resident ...

Mapping Genome-wide Accessible Chromatin in Primary Human T Lymphocytes by ATAC-Seq

Assay for Transposase-Accessible Chromatin with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-seq) is a method used for the identification of open (accessible) regions of chromatin. These regions represent regulatory DNA elements (e.g., promoters, enhancers, locus control regions, insulators) to which transcription factors bind. Mapping the accessible chromatin landscape is a powerful approach for uncovering active regulatory elements across the genome. This information serves as an unbiased approach for discovering the network of relevant transcription factors and mechanisms of chromatin structure that govern gene expression programs. ATAC-seq is a robust and sensitive alternative to DNase I hypersensitivity analysis coupled with next-generation sequencing (DNase-seq) and formaldehyde-assisted isolation of regulatory elements (FAIRE-seq) for genome-wide analysis of chromatin accessibility and to the sequencing of micrococcal nuclease-sensitive sites (MNase-seq) to determine nucleosome positioning. We present a detailed ATAC-seq protocol optimized for human primary immune cells i.e. CD4+ lymphocytes (T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 cells). This comprehensive protocol begins with cell harvest, then describes the molecular procedure of chromatin tagmentation, sample preparation for next-generation sequencing, and also includes methods and considerations for the computational analyses used to interpret the results. Moreover, to save time and money, we introduced quality control measures to assess the ATAC-seq library prior to sequencing. Importantly, the principles presented in this protocol allow its adaptation to other human immune and non-immune primary cells and cell lines. These guidelines will also be useful for laboratories which are not proficient with next-generation sequencing methods.

Assay for Transposase-Accessible Chromatin coupled with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-seq) is a genome-wide method to uncover accessible chromatin. This is a step-by-step ATAC-seq protocol, from molecular to the final computational analysis, optimized for human lymphocytes (Th1/Th2). This protocol can be adopted by researchers without prior experience in next-generation sequencing methods.

Assay for Transposase-Accessible Chromatin with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-seq) is a method used for the identification of open (accessible) regions ...

Determining Genome-wide Transcript Decay Rates in Proliferating and Quiescent Human Fibroblasts

Quiescence is a temporary, reversible state in which cells have ceased cell division, but retain the capacity to proliferate. Multiple studies, including ours, have demonstrated that quiescence is associated with widespread changes in gene expression. Some of these changes occur through changes in the level or activity of proliferation-associated transcription factors, such as E2F and MYC. We have demonstrated that mRNA decay can also contribute to changes in gene expression between proliferating and quiescent cells. In this protocol, we describe the procedure for establishing proliferating and quiescent cultures of human dermal foreskin fibroblasts. We then describe the procedures for inhibiting new transcription in proliferating and quiescent cells with Actinomycin D (ActD). ActD treatment represents a straightforward and reproducible approach to dissociating new transcription from transcript decay. A disadvantage of ActD treatment is that the time course must be limited to a short time frame because ActD affects cell viability. Transcript levels are monitored over time to determine transcript decay rates. This procedure allows for the identification of genes and isoforms that exhibit differential decay in proliferating versus quiescent fibroblasts.

We describe a protocol for generating proliferating and quiescent primary human dermal fibroblasts, monitoring transcript decay rates, and identifying differentially decaying genes.

Quiescence is a temporary, reversible state in which cells have ceased cell division, but retain the capacity to proliferate. Multiple studies, including ...

Generation of Genome-wide Chromatin Conformation Capture Libraries from Tightly Staged Early Drosophila Embryos

Investigating the three-dimensional architecture of chromatin offers invaluable insight into the mechanisms of gene regulation. Here, we describe a protocol for performing the chromatin conformation capture technique in situ Hi-C on staged Drosophila melanogaster embryo populations. The result is a sequencing library that allows the mapping of all chromatin interactions that occur in the nucleus in a single experiment. Embryo sorting is done manually using a fluorescent stereo microscope and a transgenic fly line containing a nuclear marker. Using this technique, embryo populations from each nuclear division cycle, and with defined cell cycle status, can be obtained with very high purity. The protocol may also be adapted to sort older embryos beyond gastrulation. Sorted embryos are used as inputs for in situ Hi-C. All experiments, including sequencing library preparation, can be completed in five days. The protocol has low input requirements and works reliably using 20 blastoderm stage embryos as input material. The end result is a sequencing library for next generation sequencing. After sequencing, the data can be processed into genome-wide chromatin interaction maps that can be analyzed using a wide range of available tools to gain information about topologically associating domain (TAD) structure, chromatin loops, and chromatin compartments during Drosophila development.

Generation of Genome-wide Chromatin Conformation Capture Libraries from Tightly Staged Early Drosophila Embryos

This work describes a protocol for the generation of high resolution in situ Hi-C libraries from tightly staged pre-gastrulation Drosophila melanogaster embryos.

Investigating the three-dimensional architecture of chromatin offers invaluable insight into the mechanisms of gene regulation. Here, we describe a ...

Profiling DNA Replication Timing Using Zebrafish as an In Vivo Model System

DNA replication timing is an important cellular characteristic, exhibiting significant relationships with chromatin structure, transcription, and DNA mutation rates. Changes in replication timing occur during development and in cancer, but the role replication timing plays in development and disease is not known. Zebrafish were recently established as an in vivo model system to study replication timing. Here is detailed the protocols for using the zebrafish to determine DNA replication timing. After sorting cells from embryos and adult zebrafish, high-resolution genome-wide DNA replication timing patterns can be constructed by determining changes in DNA copy number through analysis of next generation sequencing data. The zebrafish model system allows for evaluation of the replication timing changes that occur in vivo throughout development, and can also be used to assess changes in individual cell types, disease models, or mutant lines. These methods will enable studies investigating the mechanisms and determinants of replication timing establishment and maintenance during development, the role replication timing plays in mutations and tumorigenesis, and the effects of perturbing replication timing on development and disease.

Profiling DNA Replication Timing Using Zebrafish as an In Vivo Model System

Zebrafish were recently used as an in vivo model system to study DNA replication timing during development. Here is detailed the protocols for using zebrafish embryos to profile replication timing. This protocol can be easily adapted to study replication timing in mutants, individual cell types, disease models, and other species.

DNA replication timing is an important cellular characteristic, exhibiting significant relationships with chromatin structure, transcription, and DNA ...

Promoter Capture Hi-C: High-resolution, Genome-wide Profiling of Promoter Interactions

The three-dimensional organization of the genome is linked to its function. For example, regulatory elements such as transcriptional enhancers control the spatio-temporal expression of their target genes through physical contact, often bridging considerable (in some cases hundreds of kilobases) genomic distances and bypassing nearby genes. The human genome harbors an estimated one million enhancers, the vast majority of which have unknown gene targets. Assigning distal regulatory regions to their target genes is thus crucial to understand gene expression control. We developed Promoter Capture Hi-C (PCHi-C) to enable the genome-wide detection of distal promoter-interacting regions (PIRs), for all promoters in a single experiment. In PCHi-C, highly complex Hi-C libraries are specifically enriched for promoter sequences through in-solution hybrid selection with thousands of biotinylated RNA baits complementary to the ends of all promoter-containing restriction fragments. The aim is to then pull-down promoter sequences and their frequent interaction partners such as enhancers and other potential regulatory elements. After high-throughput paired-end sequencing, a statistical test is applied to each promoter-ligated restriction fragment to identify significant PIRs at the restriction fragment level. We have used PCHi-C to generate an atlas of long-range promoter interactions in dozens of human and mouse cell types. These promoter interactome maps have contributed to a greater understanding of mammalian gene expression control by assigning putative regulatory regions to their target genes and revealing preferential spatial promoter-promoter interaction networks. This information also has high relevance to understanding human genetic disease and the identification of potential disease genes, by linking non-coding disease-associated sequence variants in or near control sequences to their target genes.

DNA regulatory elements, such as enhancers, control gene expression by physically contacting target gene promoters, often through long-range chromosomal interactions spanning large genomic distances. Promoter Capture Hi-C (PCHi-C) identifies significant interactions between promoters and distal regions, enabling the assignment of potential regulatory sequences to their target genes.

The three-dimensional organization of the genome is linked to its function. For example, regulatory elements such as transcriptional enhancers control the ...

A Simple, Rapid, and Quantitative Assay to Measure Repair of DNA-protein Crosslinks on Plasmids Transfected into Mammalian Cells

The purpose of this method is to provide a flexible, rapid, and quantitative technique to examine the kinetics of DNA-protein crosslink (DPC) repair in mammalian cell lines. Rather than globally assaying removal of xenobiotic-induced or spontaneous chromosomal DPC removal, this assay examines the repair of a homogeneous, chemically defined lesion specifically introduced at one site within a plasmid DNA substrate. Importantly, this approach avoids the use of radioactive materials and is not dependent on expensive or highly-specialized technology. Instead, it relies on standard recombinant DNA procedures and widely available real-time, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) instrumentation. Given the inherent flexibility of the strategy utilized, the size of the crosslinked protein, as well as the nature of the chemical linkage and the precise DNA sequence context of the attachment site can be varied to address the respective contributions of these parameters to the overall efficiency of DPC repair. Using this method, plasmids containing a site-specific DPC were transfected into cells and low molecular weight DNA recovered at various times post-transfection. Recovered DNA is then subjected to strand-specific primer extension (SSPE) using a primer complementary to the damaged strand of the plasmid. Since the DPC lesion blocks Taq DNA polymerase, the ratio of repaired to un-repaired DNA can be quantitatively assessed using qPCR. Cycle threshold (CT) values are used to calculate percent repair at various time points in the respective cell lines. This SSPE-qPCR method can also be used to quantitatively assess the repair kinetics of any DNA adduct that blocks Taq polymerase.

The goal of this protocol is to quantify the repair of defined DNA-protein crosslinks on plasmid DNA. Lesioned plasmids are transfected into recipient mammalian cell lines and low-molecular weight harvested at multiple time points post-transfection. DNA repair kinetics are quantified using strand-specific primer extension followed by qPCR.

The purpose of this method is to provide a flexible, rapid, and quantitative technique to examine the kinetics of DNA-protein crosslink (DPC) repair in ...

Genome-wide Surveillance of Transcription Errors in Eukaryotic Organisms

Accurate transcription is required for the faithful expression of genetic information. Surprisingly though, little is known about the mechanisms that control the fidelity of transcription. To fill this gap in scientific knowledge, we recently optimized the circle-sequencing assay to detect transcription errors throughout the transcriptome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Drosophila melanogaster, and Caenorhabditis elegans. This protocol will provide researchers with a powerful new tool to map the landscape of transcription errors in eukaryotic cells so that the mechanisms that control the fidelity of transcription can be elucidated in unprecedented detail.

This protocol provides researchers with a new tool to monitor the fidelity of transcription in multiple model organisms.

Accurate transcription is required for the faithful expression of genetic information. Surprisingly though, little is known about the mechanisms that ...