这项工作得到NIH NINDS授予R01 NS047557的支持。

<ol>
	<li>Sykova, E., Nicholson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+in+brain+extracellular+space.">Diffusion in brain extracellular space.</a> Physiol Rev. 88 (4), 1277-1340 (2008).</li><li>Nicholson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+and+related+transport+mechanisms+in+brain+tissue.">Diffusion and related transport mechanisms in brain tissue.</a> Rep Prog Phys. 64 (7), 815-884 (2001).</li><li>Nicholson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ion-selective+microelectrodes+and+diffusion+measurements+as+tools+to+explore+the+brain+cell+microenvironment.">Ion-selective microelectrodes and diffusion measurements as tools to explore the brain cell microenvironment.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 48 (3), 199-213 (1993).</li><li>Nicholson, C., Phillips, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ion+diffusion+modified+by+tortuosity+and+volume+fraction+in+the+extracellular+microenvironment+of+the+rat+cerebellum.">Ion diffusion modified by tortuosity and volume fraction in the extracellular microenvironment of the rat cerebellum.</a> J Physiol. 321, 225-257 (1981).</li><li>Nicholson, C., Sykova, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+space+structure+revealed+by+diffusion+analysis.">Extracellular space structure revealed by diffusion analysis.</a> Trends Neurosci. 21 (5), 207-215 (1998).</li><li>Xie, L. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sleep+drives+metabolite+clearance+from+the+adult+brain.">Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain.</a> Science. 342 (6156), 373-377 (2013).</li><li>Hrabetova, S., Nicholson, C., Michael, A. C., Borland, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biophysical+properties+of+brain+extracellular+space+explored+with+ion-selective+microelectrodes,+integrative+optical+imaging+and+related+techniques.">Biophysical properties of brain extracellular space explored with ion-selective microelectrodes, integrative optical imaging and related techniques.</a> Electrochemical Methods for Neuroscience Neuroscience. , 167-204 (2007).</li><li>Rice, M. E., Okada, Y. C., Nicholson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anisotropic+and+heterogeneous+diffusion+in+the+turtle+cerebellum:+implications+for+volume+transmission.">Anisotropic and heterogeneous diffusion in the turtle cerebellum: implications for volume transmission.</a> J Neurophysiol. 70 (5), 2035-2044 (1993).</li><li>Vargova, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+parameters+of+the+extracellular+space+in+human+gliomas.">Diffusion parameters of the extracellular space in human gliomas.</a> Glia. 42 (1), 77-88 (2003).</li><li>Haack, N., Durry, S., Kafitz, K. W., Chesler, M., Rose, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Double-barreled+and+concentric+microelectrodes+for+measurement+of+extracellular+ion+signals+in+brain+tissue.">Double-barreled and concentric microelectrodes for measurement of extracellular ion signals in brain tissue.</a> J Vis Exp. (103), (2015).</li><li>Xiao, F., Hrabetova, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enlarged+extracellular+space+of+aquaporin-4-deficient+mice+does+not+enhance+diffusion+of+Alexa+Fluor+488+or+dextran+polymers.">Enlarged extracellular space of aquaporin-4-deficient mice does not enhance diffusion of Alexa Fluor 488 or dextran polymers.</a> Neuroscience. 161 (1), 39-45 (2009).</li><li>Sherpa, A. D., Pvan de Nes, ., Xiao, F., Weedon, J., Hrabetova, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gliotoxin-induced+swelling+of+astrocytes+hinders+diffusion+in+brain+extracellular+space+via+formation+of+dead-space+microdomains.">Gliotoxin-induced swelling of astrocytes hinders diffusion in brain extracellular space via formation of dead-space microdomains.</a> Glia. 62 (7), 1053-1065 (2014).</li><li>Kume-Kick, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Independence+of+extracellular+tortuosity+and+volume+fraction+during+osmotic+challenge+in+rat+neocortex.">Independence of extracellular tortuosity and volume fraction during osmotic challenge in rat neocortex.</a> J Physiol. 542 (Pt 2), 515-527 (2002).</li><li>Saghyan, A., Lewis, D. P., Hrabe, J., Hrabetova, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Extracellular+diffusion+in+laminar+brain+structures+exemplified+by+hippocampus.">Extracellular diffusion in laminar brain structures exemplified by hippocampus.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 205 (1), 110-118 (2012).</li><li>Fedirko, N., Svichar, N., Chesler, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+and+use+of+high-speed,+concentric+H+-+and+Ca2+-selective+microelectrodes+suitable+for+in+vitro+extracellular+recording.">Fabrication and use of high-speed, concentric H+- and Ca2+-selective microelectrodes suitable for in vitro extracellular recording.</a> J Neurophys. 96 (2), 919-924 (2006).</li><li>Nicholson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+from+an+injected+volume+of+a+substance+in+brain+tissue+with+arbitrary+volume+fraction+and+tortuosity.">Diffusion from an injected volume of a substance in brain tissue with arbitrary volume fraction and tortuosity.</a> Brain Res. 333 (2), 325-329 (1985).</li><li>Nicholson, C., Tao, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hindered+diffusion+of+high+molecular+weight+compounds+in+brain+extracellular+microenvironment+measured+with+integrative+optical+imaging.">Hindered diffusion of high molecular weight compounds in brain extracellular microenvironment measured with integrative optical imaging.</a> Biophys J. 65 (6), 2277-2290 (1993).</li><li>Thorne, R. G., Nicholson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+diffusion+analysis+with+quantum+dots+and+dextrans+predicts+the+width+of+brain+extracellular+space.">In vivo diffusion analysis with quantum dots and dextrans predicts the width of brain extracellular space.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 103 (14), 5567-5572 (2006).</li><li>Wolak, D. J., Thorne, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+of+macromolecules+in+the+brain:+implications+for+drug+delivery.">Diffusion of macromolecules in the brain: implications for drug delivery.</a> Mol Pharm. 10 (5), 1492-1504 (2013).</li></ol>

作者宣称他们没有竞争的经济利益。

<img alt="图10" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55755/55755fig10.jpg" /> 图10:展示常见技术问题的非理想数据。 （ a ）离子电渗微电极的常见技术问题图:功能性离子电渗微电极的TMA正常释放与三个来源的技术问题的比较。 [高放大倍数，a1]理想的离子电渗源中的电流通过TMA释放和氯化物摄取而均匀地进行。 [高倍率，A2]一种离子电渗微电极具有低N t个释放更少TMA?...

<html>细胞外空间（ECS）是所有脑细胞外部相互通路的网络，包含间质液和细胞外基质（ 图1a和图1b ）。脑细胞功能所需的许多物质（包括营养素，激素和神经递质）的分布通过ECS扩散发生。在该空间中的物理参数，包括体积，几何形状和细胞外基质，变化可以显着地通过ECS和局部离子浓度洗澡脑细胞，从而对脑细胞功能1,2产生深远的影响影响扩散。 实时离子电渗疗法（RTI）被用于确定一个大脑区域的两个结构特点:体积分数和弯曲度3，4，"xref"&gt; 5。体积分数（ α ）是代表基础体积中ECS（ V ECS ）相对于总组织体积（ V 组织 ）占据的组织体积的比例; <img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55755/55755eq1.jpg" />与没有障碍物的介质相比，Tortuosity（ λ ）是通过脑区域扩散时物质遇到的相对障碍; <img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55755/55755eq2.jpg" />其中D * （cm 2 s -1 ）是物质在脑中的有效扩散系数， D （cm 2 s -1 ）是物质在游离介质如稀释琼脂糖凝胶中的自由扩散系数。 今天是R最常用的探针物质TI方法是小阳离子四甲基铵（TMA）。 TMA的分子量为74g / mol，在溶液中完全解离，并具有一个正电荷。这种离子的RTI研究已经证明α <img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55755/55755eq3.jpg" /> 0.2和λ <img alt="方程" src="/files/ftp_upload/55755/55755eq3.jpg" /> 1.6 1,2。这意味着ECS大约是总体积的20％，并且小的惰性分子的扩散在ECS中比在没有障碍物3的介质中大约慢2.5倍。然而， α和λ随着脑年龄，区域和状态以及病理状况而变化1 。这些参数的改变与大脑发育，衰老，睡眠，癫痫以及脑中许多其他基本过程和疾病有关1， 6 。虽然其他技术测量α和λ ，RTI可以实时测量生物组织的局部区域。因此，RTI在急性和可逆性挑战中已成为调查α和λ变化的不可缺少的工具。 该理论支撑器R最初由尼克尔森和Phillips验证，并且该技术已经被自那时起4,7广泛使用。使用RTI的实验开始于通过离子电渗法从源微电极释放到脉冲TMA的稀释琼脂糖凝胶。一旦弹出，离子从点源自由扩散，从潜在的无限数量的随机路径中选择（ 图1d ）。使用大约定位的离子选择性微电极（ISM）随时间测量离子的变化浓度100米远（ 图1c ）。 TMA浓度的变化被绘制并适合于允许计算D和离子电渗微电极（在方案中讨论的参数）的输送数的曲线。利用这些值，在感兴趣的脑区域中重复该过程以获得D *并计算α和λ 。离子电渗微电极的控制，TMA浓度曲线的数据收集，绘图和拟合以及实验参数的计算都通常由专门为此目的而设计的程序Wanda和Walter完成（软件及其手册是可根据要求自由提供）。 本评论的"议定书"部分描述了在啮齿动物脑切片中设计和执行RTI所需的基本程序。该技术也被用于无杆ENT模型，包括人脑切片和体内脑制剂1，4，6，8，9。 "代表结果"部分提供理想和非理想的结果，以突出数据解释的细微差别。最后，讨论部分简要介绍了故障排除技术，RTI的限制，用于研究ECS的替代技术以及RTI的未来应用。 <img alt="图1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55755/55755fig1.jpg" /> 图1:ECS扩散图。 （ a ）ECS图:在典型的脑部分显示ECS的大小和位置。黄色标记了灰色脑细胞过程之间的ECS。 ECS的体积大约是总组织体积的20％（ 即，体积分数= 0。2）生理条件下。 （ b ）ECS的放大图:重点介绍有助于曲折的物理参数，包括脑细胞几何（灰色）和细胞外基质（图示为多色糖胺聚糖和蛋白多糖的网格）。 （ c ）从点源扩散的3D图:证明惰性分子从离子电渗源到ISM的净运动。排除扩散阻挡层和细胞摄取，分子在所有方向向外扩散，产生球形浓度前沿。 ISM量化从离子电渗源释放的惰性分子的局部浓度。 （ d ）大脑ECS中扩散的计算机模拟:[左侧]蒙特卡罗模拟的设置;绿色球体代表脑细胞过程，红色十字表示点源。这个设置模拟图1a所示的脑组织。 [中图] 3和6个分子在通过大脑的细胞外空间扩散时进行随机运动，如图2所示。 [远]从点源释放的许多分子的随机游走。来自点源的所有分子的净运动是向外的， 如图1c所示 。累积随机散点概述了单元格之间的空格（ 即 ECS;参见参考文献5进行进一步说明）。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55755/55755fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的较大版本。</a>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>A/D and D/A converter</td>
			<td>National Instruments Corporation</td>
			<td>NI USB-6221 DAQ</td>
			<td>The NI USB-6221 is still sold as a &#39;Legacy&#39; device by NI. They recommend using NI USB-6341 X Series DAQs for new installations, however we have not tested the newer units. We describe the use of the NI USB-6221 with MATLAB and Windows 7 (32-bit). Alternatives: the much older PCI-MIO-16E-4 A/D converter (Used under Windows XP or older OS only) with BNC-2090 BNC connector panel and SH68-68-EP cable. As noted in the Wanda Manual, an experimental MATLAB program to use Axon Binary Files is available.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>agarose</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>NuSieve GTG Agarose #50081</td>
			<td>to prepare dilute agarose gel for RTI measurements</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>amplifier for ISM</td>
			<td>Dagan</td>
			<td>Model IX2-700 Dual Intracellular Preamplifier</td>
			<td>ion and reference voltage amplifier with N=0.1 (for reference barrel) and N=0.001 (for ion barrel) headstages</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>biological compound miscroscope (with 4x and 10x objective)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for chipping the microelectrode tips and inspecting microelectrodes; various suppliers, e.g. AmScope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>borosilicate theta capillary glass tubing</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments model TG200-4; order #64-0811</td>
			<td>double-barreled glass tubing for ion-selective microelectrodes and iontophoretic microelectrodes; O.D. 2.0 mm, I.D. 1.4 mm, septum 0.2 mm, length 10 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>brush</td>
			<td>Winsor &#38; Newton</td>
			<td>University Series 233, size 0</td>
			<td>round shoft handle brush, available from Amazon</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bunsen burner</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>camera for visualizing micropipettes</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>OLY-150</td>
			<td>requires monitor, IR filter on substage illuminator is optional</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>chart recorder</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>to record continuously voltages on ion-selective microelectrode during calibration in tetramethylammonium standards and during RTI experiment; e.g. Kipp &#38; Zonen type BD112 dual-cannel chart recorded, available refurbished</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>chlorotrimethylsilane, puriss., &#62; 99%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>catalog # 92360</td>
			<td>for silanization; CAUTION: flammable, acute toxicity (oral, dermal, inhalation), skin corrosion, eye damage, reacts violently with water, see Sigma-Aldrich Safety Information for full description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Commercial Software</td>
			<td>The MathWorks</td>
			<td>MATLAB, Data acquisition toolbox</td>
			<td>for data acquisition and analysis using Wanda and Walter programs. Note that an academic license is available.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>eye protective goggles</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fixed-stage compound microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX51WI</td>
			<td>can use other compound microscopes with fixed stages</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>#11251-10</td>
			<td>to chip glass capillary; Dumond #5, preferably used and no longer needed for fine work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fume hood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for silanization and filling the tip of ion-selective barrel with liquid ion exchanger; various supliers, e.g. Captair with approriate filter sold by Erlab</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glass microscope slide</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>#12-550A</td>
			<td>to chip microelectrode tips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>heater/stirrer</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>Corning PC-420D</td>
			<td>to prepare dilute agarose gel and stir solutions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>iontophoretic unit</td>
			<td>Dagan</td>
			<td>ION-100 and PS-100</td>
			<td>ION-100 is a single channel iontophoresis unit +/- 130 V compliance; PS-100 is an external power supply; alternatives: e.g. Axoprobe-1A made by Axon Instruments (now Molecular Devices), out of production, check for availability of refurbished units (eBay and other sites)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>liquid ion exchanger (LIX) for tetramethylammonium</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>IE190 Potassium Ion Exchanger</td>
			<td>Note: this is equivalent to the original Corning potassium exchanger 477317 based on tetraphenlyborate - do not confuse with neutral carrier potassium exchanger originating from the laboartory of Dr. Simon, ETH, Zurich, which does not sense tetramethylammonium, and is sold by Fluka. You can also make liquid ion exchanger for tetramethylammonium yourself: 3% by weight potassium tetrakis = (p-chlorophenyl) borate dissolved in 2,3-dimethylnitrobenzene. Buy chemicals from Fluka (now part of Sigma). See Oehme and Simon (1976) Anal. Chim. Acta 86: 21-25; CAUTION: The toxicological properties of this liquid ion exchanger have not been fully determined. Ingestion or contact with the human body may be harmful. Exercise due care! Liquid ion exchangers should be stored in a cool place out of direct sunlight.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microelectrode holder</td>
			<td>WPI</td>
			<td>M3301EH</td>
			<td>to hold ion-selective microeletrode prefabricate for silanization and filling the tip of ion-selective barrel with liquid ion exchanger; WPI sells two versions of this holder, clear M3301EH and black M3301EH. In our experience, the clear M3301EH appears to be sturdier then the black M3301EH.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>MM-3</td>
			<td>to position ion-selective microelectrode prefabricate during silanization and filling the tip of ion-selective barrel with liquid ion exchanger; can be substituted with any three-axis micromanipulator in good working condition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td>Model P-97</td>
			<td>to pull double-barreled glass tubing; other pullers can be used as long as they can accommodate large diameter double-barreled glass tubing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microprobe thermometer</td>
			<td>Physiotemp</td>
			<td>Model BAT-12R</td>
			<td>fine probe of this thermometer is placed close to recording site</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>needle</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>Syringes and Needles # 305122 (25 gauge)</td>
			<td>for silanization; BD PrecisionGlide needles 25 G x 5/8 in (0.5mm x 16mm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>objective 5x dry</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>MPlan N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>objective 10x water immersion</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>UMPlan FL N</td>
			<td>10x objective is water immersion, numerical aperture is 0.3, working distance is 3.3 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plastic containers (with lids)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>#14-375-148</td>
			<td>to store tetramethylammonium standard solutions and microelectrodes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>platform and x-y translation stage for fixed-stage microscope</td>
			<td>EXFO</td>
			<td>Gibraltar Burleigh</td>
			<td>platform holds slice chamber, micromanipulators and accesorries, x-y translational stage moves microscope without compromising recording stability</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>porous minicup</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for RTI measurements in a dilute agarose gel; homemade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>reusable adhesive</td>
			<td>Bostik</td>
			<td>Blu-Tack</td>
			<td>for securing microelectrodes to holding vessel and other uses; various suppliers, available from Amazon</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>robotic micromanipulator with precise x,y,z positioning</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td>MP-285</td>
			<td>two mircomanipulators are needed to hold separately ion-selective microelectrode and iontophoretic microelectrode. Also possible to glue micropipettes in a spaced array (see text).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>signal conditioning unit with low-pass filter</td>
			<td>Axon Instruments</td>
			<td>CyberAmp 320 or 380</td>
			<td>no longer available from the manufacturer but may be available from E-Bay; alternatives: e.g. FLA-01 Filter/Amplifier from Cygnus Technology. This is a single channel instrument with a minimum cutoff at 10 Hz using a multipole Bessel filter but the company may be willing to modify it for a lower cutoff frequency (2 Hz) if needed.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>silver wire</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>#7830</td>
			<td>diameter 0.015&#34;, bare (no coating)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>slice chamber</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>Warner Model RC-27L</td>
			<td>this is submersion slice chamber; do not use interface slice chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stereomicroscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for silanization and filling the tip of ion-selective barrel with liquid ion exchanger; horizontally mounted; various suppliers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>syringe, 10 mL</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>Syringes and Needles #309604</td>
			<td>to backfill microelectrodes and for silanization; BD Luer-Lok tip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>syringe filter 0.22&#181;m pore</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>#6780-1302</td>
			<td>to filter backfill solutions; available from Fisher</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>syringe needle, 28 gauge, 97mm</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>MicroFil MF28G-5</td>
			<td>to backfill microelectrodes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Teflon (=PTFE) tubing</td>
			<td>Component Supply</td>
			<td>STT-28 PTFE tube light wall (28 gauge)</td>
			<td>for silanization of ion-selective barrel; fits on BD PrecisionGlide needles 25 G x 5/8 in. Note: Teflon is essential, PVC tubing would melt by hot wax.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>temperature control system</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>Warner Models TC-344B and SH-27A</td>
			<td>TC-344B is a dual automatic temperature controller, SH-27A is an in-line heater; controller and heater work with Warner slice chambers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tetramethyammonium (TMA) chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T-3411</td>
			<td>5 M solution; CAUTION: acute toxicity (oral, dermal, inhalation), carcinogenicity, hazardous to the aquatic environment, see Sigma-Aldrich Safety Information for full description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>vibrating blade microtome</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>VT1000S</td>
			<td>to cut brain slices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>xylenes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>X5-1</td>
			<td>for silanization; CAUTION: flammable, acute toxicity (oral, dermal, inhalation), skin corrosion, eye damage, carcinogenicity, see Fisher Safety Information for full description</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

real-time iontophoresis with tetramethylammonium to quantify volume fraction and tortuosity of brain extracellular space

该评论描述了执行实时离子电渗（RTI）方法的基本概念和方案，探索和定量活体大脑的细胞外空间（ECS）的金标准。 ECS围绕所有脑细胞并且包含间质液和细胞外基质。大脑活动所需的许多物质的运输，包括神经递质，激素和营养物质，都是通过ECS扩散发生的。这种空间的体积和几何形状的变化发生在正常的脑部过程，如睡眠和病理状况，如缺血。然而，大脑ECS的结构和调节，特别是在患病状态，仍然在很大程度上未被探索。 RTI方法测量活体大脑的两个物理参数:体积分数和曲折度。体积分数是ECS占据的组织体积的比例。柔软度是衡量物质在通过脑部扩散时遇到的相对阻碍与没有障碍物的介质相比。在RTI中，惰性分子从源微电极脉冲到脑ECS中。当分子从该源扩散时，使用离子选择性微电极定位大约100微米，离子的浓度随时间变化。从所得扩散曲线可以计算体积分数和曲折度。这种技术已被用于来自多个物种（包括人类）的脑切片和体内研究ECS的急性和慢性变化。与其他方法不同，RTI可以用于实时检测脑ECS的可逆和不可逆变化。

RTI技术的实用性在设计用于测量α和低渗摩洛尔挑战期间变化的实验中得到证明（ 图8和图9 ）。先前已经表明，降低了ECS的渗透压通过洗涤上低渗ACSF将产生α的降低，并增加了λ13。 在该实验中，在两个对照条件下和在低渗ACSF的洗涤期间对大?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Real-time Iontophoresis with Tetramethylammonium to Quantify Volume Fraction and Tortuosity of Brain Extracellular Space at JoVE.com

Real-time Iontophoresis with Tetramethylammonium to Quantify Volume Fraction and Tortuosity of Brain Extracellular Space

该方案描述了实时离子电渗疗法，一种测量活体大脑细胞外空间（ECS）物理参数的方法。释放到ECS中的惰性分子的扩散用于计算ECS体积分数和曲折度。它是研究脑ECS急性可逆变化的理想选择。

用四甲基铵进行实时离子电渗疗法，以量化体细胞分数和脑细胞外空间的变性

This review describes the basic concepts and protocol to perform the real-time iontophoresis (RTI) method, the gold-standard to explore and quantify the ...

real-time-iontophoresis-with-tetramethylammonium-to-quantify-volume

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

11.8K 次观看.  University of Virginia. 该方案描述了实时离子电渗疗法，一种测量活体大脑细胞外空间（ECS）物理参数的方法。释放到ECS中的惰性分子的扩散用于计算ECS体积分数和曲折度。它是研究脑ECS急性可逆变化的理想选择。 

视频: Real-time Iontophoresis with Tetramethylammonium to Quantify Volume Fraction and Tortuosity of Brain Extracellular Space

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

谷氨酸和GABA快速微离子导入:一个有用​​的工具，调查突触整合

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

科研

神经科学

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal degeneration. Lack of growth cone formation, regeneration, and loss of additional myelinated axonal projections within the spinal cord greatly limits neurological recovery following injury. To assess how central myelinated axons of the spinal cord respond to injury, we developed an ex vivo living spinal cord model utilizing transgenic mice that express yellow fluorescent protein in axons and a focal and highly reproducible laser-induced spinal cord injury to document the fate of axons and myelin (lipophilic fluorescent dye Nile Red) over time using two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy. Dynamic processes such as acute axonal injury, axonal retraction, and myelin degeneration are best studied in real-time. However, the non-focal nature of contusion-based injuries and movement artifacts encountered during in vivo spinal cord imaging make differentiating primary and secondary axonal injury responses using high resolution microscopy challenging. The ex vivo spinal cord model described here mimics several aspects of clinically relevant contusion/compression-induced axonal pathologies including axonal swelling, spheroid formation, axonal transection, and peri-axonal swelling providing a useful model to study these dynamic processes in real-time. Major advantages of this model are excellent spatiotemporal resolution that allows differentiation between the primary insult that directly injures axons and secondary injury mechanisms; controlled infusion of reagents directly to the perfusate bathing the cord; precise alterations of the environmental milieu (e.g., calcium, sodium ions, known contributors to axonal injury, but near impossible to manipulate in vivo); and murine models also offer an advantage as they provide an opportunity to visualize and manipulate genetically identified cell populations and subcellular structures. Here, we describe how to isolate and image the living spinal cord from mice to capture dynamics of acute axonal injury.

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

We present a protocol utilizing two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy to simultaneously visualize the dynamics of axon and myelin injuries in real time. This proposed protocol permits studies of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can influence central myelinated axon fate after injury and contribute to permanent clinical disability.

一个<em&gt;离体</em&gt;激光诱导脊髓损伤模型，以评估轴索变性的机制在实时

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal ...

Real-time Electrophysiology: Using Closed-loop Protocols to Probe Neuronal Dynamics and Beyond

Experimental neuroscience is witnessing an increased interest in the development and application of novel and often complex, closed-loop protocols, where the stimulus applied depends in real-time on the response of the system. Recent applications range from the implementation of virtual reality systems for studying motor responses both in mice1 and in zebrafish2, to control of seizures following cortical stroke using optogenetics3. A key advantage of closed-loop techniques resides in the capability of probing higher dimensional properties that are not directly accessible or that depend on multiple variables, such as neuronal excitability4 and reliability, while at the same time maximizing the experimental throughput. In this contribution and in the context of cellular electrophysiology, we describe how to apply a variety of closed-loop protocols to the study of the response properties of pyramidal cortical neurons, recorded intracellularly with the patch clamp technique in acute brain slices from the somatosensory cortex of juvenile rats. As no commercially available or open source software provides all the features required for efficiently performing the experiments described here, a new software toolbox called LCG5 was developed, whose modular structure maximizes reuse of computer code and facilitates the implementation of novel experimental paradigms. Stimulation waveforms are specified using a compact meta-description and full experimental protocols are described in text-based configuration files. Additionally, LCG has a command-line interface that is suited for repetition of trials and automation of experimental protocols.

Closed-loop protocols are becoming increasingly widespread in modern day electrophysiology. We present a simple, versatile and inexpensive way to perform complex electrophysiological protocols in cortical pyramidal neurons in vitro, using a desktop computer and a digital acquisition board.

实时电:采用闭环协议来探测神经动力学和超越

Experimental neuroscience is witnessing an increased interest in the development and application of novel and often complex, closed-loop protocols, where ...

A Protocol for the Administration of Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback Training

Neurologic disorders are characterized by abnormal cellular-, molecular-, and circuit-level functions in the brain. New methods to induce and control neuroplastic processes and correct abnormal function, or even shift functions from damaged tissue to physiologically healthy brain regions, hold the potential to dramatically improve overall health. Of the current neuroplastic interventions in development, neurofeedback training (NFT) from functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) has the advantages of being completely non-invasive, non-pharmacologic, and spatially localized to target brain regions, as well as having no known side effects. Furthermore, NFT techniques, initially developed using fMRI, can often be translated to exercises that can be performed outside of the scanner without the aid of medical professionals or sophisticated medical equipment. In fMRI NFT, the fMRI signal is measured from specific regions of the brain, processed, and presented to the participant in real-time. Through training, self-directed mental processing techniques, that regulate this signal and its underlying neurophysiologic correlates, are developed. FMRI NFT has been used to train volitional control over a wide range of brain regions with implications for several different cognitive, behavioral, and motor systems. Additionally, fMRI NFT has shown promise in a broad range of applications such as the treatment of neurologic disorders and the augmentation of baseline human performance. In this article, we present an fMRI NFT protocol developed at our institution for modulation of both healthy and abnormal brain function, as well as examples of using the method to target both cognitive and auditory regions of the brain.

The ability to induce and/or control neural plasticity may be critical in future treatments for neurologic disorders and the recovery from brain injury. In this paper, we present a protocol on the use of neurofeedback training with functional magnetic resonance imaging to modulate human brain function.

实时 fMRI 神经训练管理协议

Neurologic disorders are characterized by abnormal cellular-, molecular-, and circuit-level functions in the brain. New methods to induce and control ...

Assay to Measure Nucleocytoplasmic Transport in Real Time within Motor Neuron-like NSC-34 Cells

Nucleocytoplasmic transport refers to the import and export of large molecules from the cell nucleus. Recently, a number of studies have shown a connection between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and impairments in the nucleocytoplasmic pathway. ALS is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the motor neurons and resulting in paralysis and ultimately in death, within 2-5 years on average. Most cases of ALS are sporadic, lacking any apparent genetic linkage, but 10% are inherited in a dominant manner. Recently, hexanucleotide repeat expansions (HREs) in the chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9orf72) gene were identified as a genetic cause of ALS and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Importantly, different groups have recently proposed that these mutants affect nucleocytoplasmic transport. These studies have mostly shown the final outcome and manifestations caused by HREs on nucleocytoplasmic transport, but they do not demonstrate nuclear transport dysfunction in real time. As a result, only severe nucleocytoplasmic transport deficiency can be determined, mostly due to high overexpression or exogenous protein insertion. 
This protocol describes a new and very sensitive assay to evaluate and quantify nucleocytoplasmic transport dysfunction in real time. The rate of import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein (shuttle-GFP) can be quantified in real time using fluorescent microscopy. This is performed by using an exportin inhibitor, thus allowing the shuttle GFP only to enter the nucleus. To validate the assay, the C9orf72 HRE translated dipeptide repeats, poly(GR) and poly(PR), which have been previously shown to disrupt nucleocytoplasmic transport, were used. Using the described assay, a 50% decrease in the nuclear import rate was observed compared to the control. Using this system, minute changes in nucleocytoplasmic transport can be examined and the ability of different factors to rescue (even partially) a nucleocytoplasmic transport defect can be determined.

This protocol describes a method to sensitively measure the nucleocytoplasmic transport rate within motor neuron-like NSC-34 cells by quantifying the real-time change in the nuclear import of a NLS-NES-GFP protein.

测定在运动神经元样NSC-34细胞中实时测量核细胞质运输

Nucleocytoplasmic transport refers to the import and export of large molecules from the cell nucleus. Recently, a number of studies have shown a ...

Live-cell Measurement of Odorant Receptor Activation Using a Real-time cAMP Assay

The enormous sizes of the mammalian odorant receptor (OR) families present difficulties to find their cognate ligands among numerous volatile chemicals. To efficiently and accurately deorphanize ORs, we combine the use of a heterologous cell line to express mammalian ORs and a genetically modified biosensor plasmid to measure cAMP production downstream of OR activation in real time. This assay can be used to screen odorants against ORs and vice versa. Positive odorant-receptor interactions from the screens can be subsequently confirmed by testing against various odor concentrations, generating concentration-response curves. Here we used this method to perform a high-throughput screening of an odorous compound against a human OR library expressed in Hana3A cells and confirmed that the positively-responding receptor is the cognate receptor for the compound of interest. We found this high-throughput detection method to be efficient and reliable in assessing OR activation and our data provide an example of its potential use in OR functional studies.

Characterizing the function of odorant receptors serves an indispensable part in the deorphanization process. We describe a method to measure the activation of odorant receptors in real time using a cAMP assay.

实时 cAMP 检测气味受体激活的活细胞测量

The enormous sizes of the mammalian odorant receptor (OR) families present difficulties to find their cognate ligands among numerous volatile chemicals. ...

Recording Synaptic Plasticity in Acute Hippocampal Slices Maintained in a Small-volume Recycling-, Perfusion-, and Submersion-type Chamber System

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful analysis of synaptic transmission modulation when performing field potential or intracellular recordings. This manuscript describes methodological aspects that might be helpful in improving experimental conditions for the maintenance of acute brain slices and for recording field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in a commercially available submersion chamber with an outflow-carbogenation unit. The outflow-carbogenation helps to stabilize the oxygen level in experiments that rely on the recycling of a small buffer reservoir to enhance the cost-efficiency of drug experiments. In addition, the manuscript presents representative experiments that examine the effects of different carbogenation modes and stimulation paradigms on the activity-dependent synaptic plasticity of synaptic transmission.

This protocol describes the stabilization of the oxygen level in a small volume of recycled buffer and methodological aspects of recording activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in submerged acute hippocampal slices.

小容积回收-灌注-浸没式室系统中维持的急性海马切片的突触可塑性记录

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful ...

Exploring Deep Space - Uncovering the Anatomy of Periventricular Structures to Reveal the Lateral Ventricles of the Human Brain

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this challenging. Because the ventricles are negative spaces located deep within the brain, the only way to understand their anatomy is by appreciating their boundaries formed by related structures. Looking at a 2D representation of these spaces, in any of the cardinal planes, will not enable visualisation of all of the structures that form the boundaries of the ventricles. Thus, using 2D sections alone requires students to compute their own mental image of the 3D ventricular spaces. The aim of this study was to develop a reproducible method for dissecting the human brain to create an educational resource to enhance student understanding of the intricate relationships between the ventricles and periventricular structures. To achieve this, we created a video resource that features a step-by-step guide using a fiber dissection method to reveal the lateral and third ventricles together with the closely related limbic system and basal ganglia structures. One of the advantages of this method is that it enables delineation of the white matter tracts that are difficult to distinguish using other dissection techniques. This video is accompanied by a written protocol that provides a systematic description of the process to aid in the reproduction of the brain dissection. This package offers a valuable anatomy teaching resource for educators and students alike. By following these instructions educators can create teaching resources and students can be guided to produce their own brain dissection as a hands-on practical activity. We recommend that this video guide be incorporated into neuroanatomy teaching to enhance student understanding of the morphology and clinical relevance of the ventricles.

This paper demonstrates the effective use of a fiber dissection method to reveal the superficial white matter tracts and periventricular structures of the human brain, in three-dimensional space, to aid student comprehension of ventricular morphology.

探索深空-揭开人脑侧脑室的脑室结构解剖

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this ...

In Vivo Microdialysis Method to Collect Large Extracellular Proteins from Brain Interstitial Fluid with High-molecular Weight Cut-off Probes

In vivo microdialysis is a powerful technique to collect ISF from awake, freely-behaving animals based on a dialysis principle. While microdialysis is an established method that measures relatively small molecules including amino acids or neurotransmitters, it has been recently used to also assess dynamics of larger molecules in ISF using probes with high molecular weight cut off membranes. Upon using such probes, microdialysis has to be run in a push-pull mode to avoid pressure accumulated inside of the probes. This article provides step-by-step protocols including stereotaxic surgery and how to set up microdialysis lines to collect proteins from ISF. During microdialysis, drugs can be administered either systemically or by direct infusion into ISF. Reverse microdialysis is a technique to directly infuse compounds into ISF. Inclusion of drugs in the microdialysis perfusion buffer allows them to diffuse into ISF through the probes while simultaneously collecting ISF. By measuring tau protein as an example, the author shows how its levels are altered upon stimulating neuronal activity by reverse microdialysis of picrotoxin. Advantages and limitations of microdialysis are described along with the extended application by combining other in vivo methods.

In Vivo Microdialysis Method to Collect Large Extracellular Proteins from Brain Interstitial Fluid with High-molecular Weight Cut-off Probes

In vivo microdialysis has enabled collection of molecules present in brain interstitial fluid (ISF) from awake, freely-behaving animals. In order to analyze relatively large molecules in ISF, the current article specifically focuses on the microdialysis protocol using probes with high molecular weight cut off membranes.

体内高分子量截离法从脑间质液中提取大细胞外蛋白的微透析方法

In vivo microdialysis is a powerful technique to collect ISF from awake, freely-behaving animals based on a dialysis principle. While microdialysis is an ...

Real-time Video Projection in an MRI for Characterization of Neural Correlates Associated with Mirror Therapy for Phantom Limb Pain

Mirror therapy (MT) has been proposed as an effective rehabilitative strategy to alleviate pain symptoms in amputees with phantom limb pain (PLP). However, establishing the neural correlates associated with MT therapy have been challenging given that it is difficult to administer the therapy effectively within a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner environment. To characterize the functional organization of cortical regions associated with this rehabilitative strategy, we have developed a combined behavioral and functional neuroimaging protocol that can be applied in participants with a leg amputation. This novel approach allows participants to undergo MT within the MRI scanner environment by viewing real-time video images captured by a camera. The images are viewed by the participant through a system of mirrors and a monitor that the participant views while lying on the scanner bed. In this manner, functional changes in cortical areas of interest (e.g., sensorimotor cortex) can be characterized in response to the direct application of MT.

We present a novel combined behavioral and neuroimaging protocol employing real-time video projection for the purpose of characterizing the neural correlates associated with mirror therapy within the magnetic resonance imaging scanner environment in leg amputee subjects with phantom limb pain.

用四甲基铵进行实时离子电渗疗法，以量化体细胞分数和脑细胞外空间的变性

摘要

探索更多视频

此视频中的章节

谷氨酸和GABA快速微离子导入:一个有用的工具，调查突触整合

一个

实时电:采用闭环协议来探测神经动力学和超越

实时 fMRI 神经训练管理协议

测定在运动神经元样NSC-34细胞中实时测量核细胞质运输

实时 cAMP 检测气味受体激活的活细胞测量

小容积回收-灌注-浸没式室系统中维持的急性海马切片的突触可塑性记录

探索深空-揭开人脑侧脑室的脑室结构解剖

体内高分子量截离法从脑间质液中提取大细胞外蛋白的微透析方法

MRI 实时视频显示在与镜治疗的恐惧症肢体疼痛相关的神经相关性特征中的应用

用四甲基铵进行实时离子电渗疗法，以量化体细胞分数和脑细胞外空间的变性

摘要

探索更多视频

此视频中的章节

谷氨酸和GABA快速微离子导入:一个有用​​的工具，调查突触整合

一个

实时电:采用闭环协议来探测神经动力学和超越

实时 fMRI 神经训练管理协议

测定在运动神经元样NSC-34细胞中实时测量核细胞质运输

实时 cAMP 检测气味受体激活的活细胞测量

小容积回收-灌注-浸没式室系统中维持的急性海马切片的突触可塑性记录

探索深空-揭开人脑侧脑室的脑室结构解剖

体内高分子量截离法从脑间质液中提取大细胞外蛋白的微透析方法

MRI 实时视频显示在与镜治疗的恐惧症肢体疼痛相关的神经相关性特征中的应用

谷氨酸和GABA快速微离子导入:一个有用的工具，调查突触整合