Language, whether spoken, signed, or written, consists of specific components: lexicon and grammar. The lexicon is the vocabulary of a language, comprising its words. Grammar is the set of rules used to convey meaning through the lexicon. For example, English grammar adds “-ed” to most verbs to indicate past tense. Words are formed by combining phonemes, which are the basic sound units of a language. Different languages have different sets of phonemes (e.g., “ah” vs. “eh”). Phonemes combine to form morphemes, the smallest units of language that convey meaning. For instance, “I” is both a phoneme and a morpheme because it is a basic sound unit that also conveys meaning on its own).

Semantics and syntax are parts of a language's grammar. Semantics involves deriving meaning from morphemes and words, while syntax refers to organizing words into sentences. We use grammar rules to organize the lexicon creatively, allowing us to communicate about concrete and abstract concepts. We can discuss immediate surroundings or distant planets, share innermost thoughts and plans, and debate various topics. Language enables us to provide detailed instructions for cooking, repairing, or building. Through language, we form, organize, and express schemata and artificial concepts.

For example, English vocabulary includes words like "run," "happy," and "technology." English grammar rules include adding “-ed” to verbs for past tense (e.g., "walk" becomes "walked"). The sound /k/ in "cat" and "ski" is an example of a phoneme. The word "unhappiness" has three morphemes: "un-," "happy," and "-ness." Understanding that "bachelor" means an unmarried man is an example of semantics. Correctly forming the sentence "The cat sat on the mat" instead of "Cat the mat on sat" illustrates syntax. Understanding these components and rules helps us explore the connections between language and cognition.

Pragmatics is a key feature of language that allows communication to convey more meaning than words alone. It enables the effective use of words to achieve desired outcomes. For instance, if someone says, "It's cold in here," they might not just be stating a fact but also hinting that they want the window closed or the heater turned on. Pragmatics allows us to use language to achieve desired outcomes, based on context, tone, and social cues.