Wir danken der H.O.G-Gruppe an der Arizona State University für die Entwicklung der ersten Methodik dieser hydrothermalen Experimente, und vor allem danken wir I. Gould, E. Schock, L. Williams, C. Glein, H. Hartnett, K. Fecteau, K. Robinson und C. Bockisch, für ihre Anleitungen und hilfreiche Unterstützung. Start-Fonds von der Oakland University, Z. Yang wurden Z. Yang und X. Fu finanziert.

1. bereiten Sie das Beispiel für hydrothermale Experiment
<ol><li>Wählen Sie die Größe der Quarz oder Kieselsäure Glasröhren, z. B. 2 mm Innendurchmesser (ID) x 6 mm Außendurchmesser (OD) oder 6 mm ID X 12 mm OD, und bestimmen Sie die Mengen an organischen Verbindungen und Mineralien zu verwenden. In diesem Werk sind die Beträge der Nitrobenzene und Magnetit (Fe3O4) zum Laden in die Kieselsäure-Röhre (z.B. 2 mm ID X 6 mm OD) 3,0 µL und 13,9 mg. Hinweis: Die großen Durchmesser Rohre erlauben leichter Beladung der Materialien aber erfordern mehr Anstrengungen der Rohr-Versiegelung.</li>
	<li>Schneiden Sie die Glasröhren sauber Kieselsäure in kleine Stücke mit ~ 30 cm in der Länge mit einem Rohrschneider. Versiegeln Sie ein Ende des Rohres mit einer Knallgas-Taschenlampe mit einem entsprechenden Flamme Kopf geschlossen. Achtung: Befolgen Sie die Sicherheitsvorschriften für die Verwendung von Knallgas Fackel.</li>
	<li>Wiegen Sie die vorgegebene Menge der organischen Verbindung ab auf eine 0,1 mg-Skala auszugleichen (wenn sie fest ist) und in der Kieselsäure Glasrohr mit einem Gewicht von Papier zu übertragen. Wenn die Verbindung ist Flüssigkeit (z.B. Nitrobenzene in diesem Fall), eine Mikroliter Spritze (z. B. 10 µL) verwenden, um es in das kleine Kieselsäure-Rohr übertragen. Fügen Sie die gewogenen Mineralien in die Kieselsäure-Röhre durch eine Pasteurpipette hinzu, und fügen Sie deionisiertes und sauerstoffarmes Wasser (z.B. 0,3 mL). 18.2 MΩ·cm deionisiertes Wasser verwenden und durch Ultraschallbehandlung ebenso.</li>
	<li>Schließen Sie die Kieselsäure-Schlauch an einer Vakuumleitung (~ 1 cm ID) mit geschlossenem Ventil. Tauchen Sie das Rohr in ein Dewar-Fläschchen gefüllt mit flüssigem Stickstoff für ~ 3 min. bis das organische und das Wasser komplett gefroren sind. Achtung: Befolgen Sie die Sicherheitsvorkehrungen für die Übertragung und Verwendung von flüssigem Stickstoff.</li>
	<li>Wenn das Rohr eingetaucht in flüssigem Stickstoff bleibt, öffnen Sie das Vakuumventil und entfernen Sie die Luft aus den Kopfraum des Rohres. Hinweis: Dieser Prozess sollte dauern, bis der Druck unter 100 Mtorr auf dem Manometer der Vakuumpumpe fällt.</li>
	<li>Schalten Sie das Ventil, entfernen Sie das Rohr aus dem flüssigen Stickstoff zu und lassen Sie das Rohr auf Raumtemperatur Aufwärmen. Klopfen Sie leicht den Boden des Röhrchens, die verbleibenden Luftblasen aus Lösung Headspace freizugeben.</li>
	<li>Wiederholen Sie den oben genannten Gefrier-Pumpe-tau-Zyklus für zwei weitere Male und halten Sie das Rohr in flüssigem Stickstoff vor dem Versiegeln des andere Ende des Schlauches. Schließen Sie die Vakuumleitung und verwenden Sie Knallgas Flamme, um das gesamte Rohr geschlossen zu machen. Hinweis: Wenn das Rohr hydrothermale Experimenten unterzogen wird, sinkt die Headspace-Lautstärke des Rohres durch flüssiges Wasser Expansion. Zum Beispiel reduziert die Dichte von Wasser etwa 30 % von Raumtemperatur bis 300 ° C. Berechnen Sie und verlassen Sie genügend Kopfraum Volumen zu, wenn das Rohr abdichten.</li>
</ol>2. richten Sie die hydrothermalen Experiment
<ol><li>Nach der Versiegelungen Schritten habe das Kieselsäure Rohr in ein kleines Stahlrohr (~ 30 cm Länge und 1,5 cm Durchmesser) mit losen Schraubverschlüsse, um Schäden von jedem Druck Gebäude oder Rohr Fehler innerhalb des Rohres zu vermeiden.</li>
	<li>Platzieren Sie das Rohr in einem gut temperierten Ofen oder Herd und Erhitzen Sie es auf die gewünschte Temperatur (z. B. 150 ° C in dieser Arbeit). Verwenden Sie ein Thermoelement im Inneren des Ofens, zur Überwachung der Temperatur durch die hydrothermalen Reaktion.</li>
	<li>Sobald die Reaktionszeit (z. B. 2 h in dieser Arbeit) erreicht ist, Stillen Sie Kieselsäure Rohr indem Sie das Rohr schnell in ein Eis-Wasserbad setzen. Hinweis: Der abschreckprozess dauert weniger als 1 min Abkühlen auf Raumtemperatur, wodurch mögliche retrograde Reaktionen vermieden werden.</li>
</ol>3. analysieren Sie die Probe nach dem Experiment
<ol><li>Die Kieselsäure-Röhre mit einem Rohrschneider öffnen und schnell alle Produkte (z.B. ~0.3 mL in kleinen Kieselsäure Röhre) in ein 10 mL-Glas-Fläschchen mit einer Pasteurpipette übertragen.</li>
	<li>Extrahieren Sie die Bio-Produkte mit 3 mL Dichlormethan (DCM) Lösung, die 8,8 mM Dodecane als interner Standard für die Gaschromatographie (GC) enthält. Verschließen Sie die Flasche und schütteln Sie es durch für 2 min und Vortex es für 1 min Hände. Hinweis: Dadurch wird um die Gewinnung von Bio-Produkten in die organische Phase zu erleichtern. Auch, spülen Sie die Übertragung von pipettieren und im inneren Wände der Kieselsäure-Röhre mit DCM um Produkte Erholung zu gewährleisten. Beschallen sie für Proben mit hohem mineralischen Gehalt in DCM-Lösung für bessere Extraktion.</li>
	<li>Ermöglichen Sie die mineralische Partikel sich in der Extraktionslösung (d. h.DCM mit Dodecane) niederzulassen 5 min. Einsatz einer Pasteurpipette vorsichtig ~ 1 mL der Probe in ein GC-Fläschchen aus dem DCM-Layer (d. h. die Unterschicht) übertragen.</li>
	<li>Analysieren Sie die Bio-Produkt-Vertrieb mit GC mit einer Poly-Kapillare Spalte (z. B. 5 % diphenyl/95% Dimethylsiloxane) und einem Flammenwächter Ionisation. Richten Sie den GC-Ofen mit einem Programm starten bei 50 ° C und halten Sie für 8 min., bei 10 ° C/min auf 220 ° C erhöhen und halten Sie für 10 min, bei 20 ° C/min bis 300 ° C zu erhöhen und halten Sie für 5 min. Set die Injektor-Temperatur bis 300 ° C. Hinweis: Die GC-Programm geändert werden basierend auf dem Typ von organischen Verbindungen, die analysiert wird.</li>
	<li>Bauen Sie die GC Kalibrierkurven durch das Flächenverhältnis der Höhepunkt des Analyten an den internen Standard gegen die Konzentration des Analyten zu plotten.</li>
	<li>Berechnen Sie die Reaktion Konvertierung anhand der Konzentrationen von organischen Ausgangsmaterial vor und nach der Reaktion, d.h., Konvertierung % = ([ersten]-[final]) ⁄ [ersten] × 100 %. Verwenden Sie die Konvertierungen um zu bestimmen, ob das Mineral erleichtert oder die hydrothermalen organische Veränderungen verlangsamt.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Yang, Z., Gould, I. R., Williams, L. B., Hartnett, H. E., Shock, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+iron-containing+minerals+on+hydrothermal+reactions+of+ketones.">Effects of iron-containing minerals on hydrothermal reactions of ketones.</a> Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 223, 107-126 (2018).</li><li>Seewald, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organic-inorganic+interactions+in+petroleum-producing+sedimentary+basins.">Organic-inorganic interactions in petroleum-producing sedimentary basins.</a> Nature. 426 (6964), 327-333 (2003).</li><li>Sogin, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microbial+diversity+in+the+deep+sea+and+the+underexplored+"rare+biosphere".">Microbial diversity in the deep sea and the underexplored "rare biosphere".</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (32), 12115 (2006).</li><li>McCollom, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laboratory+Simulations+of+Abiotic+Hydrocarbon+Formation+in+Earth's+Deep+Subsurface.">Laboratory Simulations of Abiotic Hydrocarbon Formation in Earth's Deep Subsurface.</a> Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. 75 (1), 467-494 (2013).</li><li>Foustoukos, D. I., Seyfried, W. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrocarbons+in+Hydrothermal+Vent+Fluids:+The+Role+of+Chromium-Bearing+Catalysts.">Hydrocarbons in Hydrothermal Vent Fluids: The Role of Chromium-Bearing Catalysts.</a> Science. 304 (5673), 1002 (2004).</li><li>Bell, J. L. S., Palmer, D. A., Pittman, E. D., Lewan, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=10.1007/978-3-642-78356-2_9.">10.1007/978-3-642-78356-2_9.</a> Organic Acids in Geological Processes. , 226-269 (1994).</li><li>Palmer, D. A., Drummond, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+decarboxylation+of+acetate.+Part+I.+The+kinetics+and+mechanism+of+reaction+in+aqueous+solution.">Thermal decarboxylation of acetate. Part I. The kinetics and mechanism of reaction in aqueous solution.</a> Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 50 (5), 813-823 (1986).</li><li>Yang, Z., Gould, I. R., Williams, L. B., Hartnett, H. E., Shock, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+central+role+of+ketones+in+reversible+and+irreversible+hydrothermal+organic+functional+group+transformations.">The central role of ketones in reversible and irreversible hydrothermal organic functional group transformations.</a> Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 98, 48-65 (2012).</li><li>McCollom, T. M., Ritter, G., Simoneit, B. R. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipid+Synthesis+Under+Hydrothermal+Conditions+by+Fischer-+Tropsch-Type+Reactions.">Lipid Synthesis Under Hydrothermal Conditions by Fischer- Tropsch-Type Reactions.</a> Origins of life and evolution of the biosphere. 29 (2), 153-166 (1999).</li><li>Bell, J. L. S., Palmer, D. A., Barnes, H. L., Drummond, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+decomposition+of+acetate:+III.+Catalysis+by+mineral+surfaces.">Thermal decomposition of acetate: III. Catalysis by mineral surfaces.</a> Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 58 (19), 4155-4177 (1994).</li><li>Yang, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrothermal+Photochemistry+as+a+Mechanistic+Tool+in+Organic+Geochemistry:+The+Chemistry+of+Dibenzyl+Ketone.">Hydrothermal Photochemistry as a Mechanistic Tool in Organic Geochemistry: The Chemistry of Dibenzyl Ketone.</a> The Journal of Organic Chemistry. 79 (17), 7861-7871 (2014).</li><li>Yang, Z., Hartnett, H. E., Shock, E. L., Gould, I. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organic+Oxidations+Using+Geomimicry.">Organic Oxidations Using Geomimicry.</a> The Journal of Organic Chemistry. 80 (24), 12159-12165 (2015).</li><li>Venturi, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mineral-assisted+production+of+benzene+under+hydrothermal+conditions:+Insights+from+experimental+studies+on+C6+cyclic+hydrocarbons.">Mineral-assisted production of benzene under hydrothermal conditions: Insights from experimental studies on C6 cyclic hydrocarbons.</a> Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 346, 21-27 (2017).</li><li>Lemke, K. H., Rosenbauer, R. J., Bird, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peptide+Synthesis+in+Early+Earth+Hydrothermal+Systems.">Peptide Synthesis in Early Earth Hydrothermal Systems.</a> Astrobiology. 9 (2), 141-146 (2009).</li><li>Byrappa, K., Yoshimura, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Handbook of Hydrothermal Technology. , (2001).</li><li>Johnson, J. W., Oelkers, E. H., Helgeson, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SUPCRT92:+A+software+package+for+calculating+the+standard+molal+thermodynamic+properties+of+minerals,+gases,+aqueous+species,+and+reactions+from+1+to+5000+bar+and+0+to+1000&#176;C.">SUPCRT92: A software package for calculating the standard molal thermodynamic properties of minerals, gases, aqueous species, and reactions from 1 to 5000 bar and 0 to 1000&#176;C.</a> Computers &amp; Geosciences. 18 (7), 899-947 (1992).</li></ol>

Die Autoren haben nichts preisgeben.

In dieser Studie verwendeten wir Nitrobenzene mit Mineral Magnetit als Beispiel um zu demonstrieren, wie man mineralische Effekte auf hydrothermale organische Reaktionen zu bewerten. Obwohl die Experimente im kleinen Kieselsäure Glasröhren durchgeführt werden, sind hoch reproduzierbare Ergebnisse in Magnetit Experimente, d. h. 30,3 ± 1,4 % bei Nitrobenzene Umwandlung, beobachtet, die die Wirksamkeit und die Zuverlässigkeit dieser schlägt hydrothermale Protokoll. In den keine-Mineral-Experimenten ist die Um...

Hydrothermale Umgebungen (d.h., wässrigen Medien bei erhöhten Temperaturen und Druck) sind überall auf der Erde. Die hydrothermale Chemie organischer Verbindungen spielt eine wesentliche Rolle in einer Vielzahl von geochemischen Einstellungen, z. B. organische Sedimentbecken, Erdöl-Lagerstätten und der tiefen Biosphäre1,2,3. Organischen Kohlenstoffs Transformationen in hydrothermalen Systemen auftreten, nicht nur in rein wässrigen Medium sondern auch mit gelösten oder feste anorganische Materialien, wie Erde reichlich Mineralien. Mineralien gefunden wurden, dramatisch und selektiv beeinflussen die hydrothermale Reaktivität von verschiedenen organischen Verbindungen,1,4,5 , aber wie die mineralische Effekte in komplexen hydrothermalen Systemen zu identifizieren Dennoch ist nach wie vor eine Herausforderung. Das Ziel dieser Studie ist es, ein relativ einfaches experimentelle Protokoll bieten für mineralische Effekte auf hydrothermale organische Reaktionen zu studieren.
Die Laborstudien hydrothermale Reaktionen verwenden traditionell robuste Reaktoren, die aus Gold, Titan oder Edelstahl6,7,8,9bestehen. Zum Beispiel wurden gold Taschen oder Kapseln günstig eingesetzt, da Gold flexibel ist und den Probe Druck ermöglicht durch Druckbeaufschlagung Wasser extern gesteuert werden, der vermeidet erzeugen eine Dampfphase innerhalb der Probe. Aber diese Reaktoren sind teuer und potenzielle Metall katalytische Effekte10zugeordnet werden könnten. Daher ist es zwingend notwendig, um eine alternative Methode mit niedrigen Kosten, aber hohe Zuverlässigkeit für diese hydrothermalen Experimente zu finden.
In den letzten Jahren wurden Reaktion Rohre aus Quarz oder Fused-Silica Glas häufiger auf hydrothermale Experimente11,12,13angewendet. Im Vergleich zu edlem Gold oder Titan, ist Quarz oder Silica Glas deutlich billiger, aber auch das starke Material. Noch wichtiger ist, quarzröhren wenig katalytische Wirkung gezeigt haben und kann so träge wie Gold für die hydrothermale Reaktionen11,14. In diesem Protokoll beschreiben wir eine allgemeine Methode für kleine hydrothermale organisch-mineralische Experimente in Kieselsäure dickwandigen Rohren. Wir präsentieren ein Beispiel-Experiment mit einer Modell-Verbindung (d. h. Nitrobenzene) in die Anwesenheit/Abwesenheit von einem Eisenoxid Mineral (z.B. Magnetit) in einer hydrothermalen Lösung von 150 ° C um die mineralischen Wirkung sowie zeigen, zeigen die Wirksamkeit dieser Methode.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dichloromethane</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH23373.400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dodecane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>297879</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrobenzene</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>252379</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fe2O3</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>310050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fe3O4</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>637106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Supplies:</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silica tube</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum pump</td>
			<td>WELCH</td>
			<td>2546B-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum line</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oven</td>
			<td>Hewlett Packard</td>
			<td>5890</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermocouple</td>
			<td>BENETECH</td>
			<td>GM1312</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gas chromatography</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>7820A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an experimental protocol for studying mineral effects on organic hydrothermal transformations

Organisch-mineralische Interaktionen sind weit verbreitet in hydrothermalen Umgebungen wie heiße Quellen, Geysire auf dem Land und der hydrothermalen Quellen in der Tiefsee auftritt. Rollen von Mineralien sind in vielen hydrothermalen bio-geochemischen Prozesse entscheidend. Traditionellen hydrothermalen Methodik, die beinhaltet die Verwendung von Reaktoren aus Gold, Titan, Platin oder Edelstahl hergestellt, ist in der Regel verbunden mit hohen Kosten oder unerwünschte Metall katalytische Effekte. Vor kurzem, gibt es eine wachsende Tendenz für die kostengünstige und inerten Quarz oder Fused-Silica-Glasröhren in hydrothermalen Experimente verwenden. Hier bieten wir ein Protokoll für Bio-Mineral hydrothermalen Experimente in Kieselsäure Röhren, und wir beschreiben die wesentlichen Schritte in der Probenvorbereitung, Versuchsaufbau Produkte Trennung und Quantitative Analyse. Wir zeigen auch ein Experiment mit einem Modell organische Verbindung, Nitrobenzene, um zu zeigen, die Wirkung einer eisenhaltigen Minerals Magnetit, auf deren Abbau unter einer bestimmten Bedingung der hydrothermalen. Diese Technik kann angewendet werden, um komplexe organische Mineral hydrothermalen Interaktionen in einem relativ einfachen Laborsystem zu untersuchen.

Zur Demonstration, wie dieser Ansatz verwenden, um hydrothermale organisch-mineralische Interaktionen, ein einfaches Experiment mit Hilfe eines zusammengesetzten Modells zu untersuchen, wurde Nitrobenzene, mit Mineral Magnetit (Fe3O4) bei 150 ° C und 5 hydrothermale Zustand durchgeführt Bars für 2 h. Um die mineralischen Wirkung zeigen, war ein Experiment von Nitrobenzene ohne Mineral auch unter den gleichen Bedingungen, hydrothermale durchgeführt. Wie in <strong...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Experimental Protocol for Studying Mineral Effects on Organic Hydrothermal Transformations at JoVE.com

An Experimental Protocol for Studying Mineral Effects on Organic Hydrothermal Transformations

Erde-reichlich Mineralien spielen eine wichtige Rolle in der natürlichen hydrothermalen Systemen. Hier beschreiben wir eine zuverlässige und kostengünstige Methode für die experimentelle Untersuchung von organisch-mineralische Interaktionen unter hydrothermalen Bedingungen.

Ein experimentelles Protokoll für die Untersuchung von mineralischen Auswirkungen auf organische hydrothermalen Transformationen

Organic-mineral interactions are widely occurring in hydrothermal environments, such as hot springs, geysers on land, and the hydrothermal vents in the ...

an-experimental-protocol-for-studying-mineral-effects-on-organic

Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

5.6K Aufrufe.  Oakland University. Erde-reichlich Mineralien spielen eine wichtige Rolle in der natürlichen hydrothermalen Systemen. Hier beschreiben wir eine zuverlässige und kostengünstige Methode für die experimentelle Untersuchung von organisch-mineralische Interaktionen unter hydrothermalen Bedingungen.

Serie: An Experimental Protocol for Studying Mineral Effects on Organic Hydrothermal Transformations

Experimental Protocol for Manipulating Plant-induced Soil Heterogeneity

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as plant-soil feedbacks (PSF) have large effects on plant performance, and create environmental heterogeneity that depends on the community composition. Understanding the importance of PSF for plant community assembly necessitates understanding of the role of heterogeneity in PSF, in addition to mean PSF effects. Here, we describe a protocol for manipulating plant-induced soil heterogeneity. Two example experiments are presented: (1) a field experiment with a 6-patch grid of soils to measure plant population responses and (2) a greenhouse experiment with 2-patch soils to measure individual plant responses. Soils can be collected from the zone of root influence (soils from the rhizosphere and directly adjacent to the rhizosphere) of plants in the field from conspecific and heterospecific plant species. Replicate collections are used to avoid pseudoreplicating soil samples. These soils are then placed into separate patches for heterogeneous treatments or mixed for a homogenized treatment. Care should be taken to ensure that heterogeneous and homogenized treatments experience the same degree of soil disturbance. Plants can then be placed in these soil treatments to determine the effect of plant-induced soil heterogeneity on plant performance. We demonstrate that plant-induced heterogeneity results in different outcomes than predicted by traditional coexistence models, perhaps because of the dynamic nature of these feedbacks. Theory that incorporates environmental heterogeneity influenced by the assembling community and additional empirical work is needed to determine when heterogeneity intrinsic to the assembling community will result in different assembly outcomes compared with heterogeneity extrinsic to the community composition.

Understanding the role of environmental heterogeneity in species coexistence has typically focused on types of heterogeneity that are extrinsic to the community&#8217;s species composition. We provide novel detailed methods for creating soil heterogeneity treatments using soils subject to plant-soil feedback conditioning, or heterogeneity intrinsic to the community composition.

Versuchsprotokoll für die Manipulation von Plant-induzierte Bodenheterogenität

Coexistence theory has often treated environmental heterogeneity as being independent of the community composition; however biotic feedbacks such as ...

Forschung

Umwelt

Evaluation of Integrated Anaerobic Digestion and Hydrothermal Carbonization for Bioenergy Production

Lignocellulosic biomass is one of the most abundant yet underutilized renewable energy resources. Both anaerobic digestion (AD) and hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) are promising technologies for bioenergy production from biomass in terms of biogas and HTC biochar, respectively. In this study, the combination of AD and HTC is proposed to increase overall bioenergy production. Wheat straw was anaerobically digested in a novel upflow anaerobic solid state reactor (UASS) in both mesophilic (37 &#176;C) and thermophilic (55 &#176;C) conditions. Wet digested from thermophilic AD was hydrothermally carbonized at 230 &#176;C for 6 hr for HTC biochar production. At thermophilic temperature, the UASS system yields an average of 165 LCH4/kgVS&#160;(VS: volatile solids) and 121 L CH4/kgVS&#160;at mesophilic AD over the continuous operation of 200 days. Meanwhile, 43.4 g of HTC biochar with 29.6 MJ/kgdry_biochar was obtained from HTC of 1 kg digestate (dry basis) from mesophilic AD. The combination of AD and HTC, in this particular set of experiment yield 13.2 MJ of energy per 1 kg of dry wheat straw, which is at least 20% higher than HTC alone and 60.2% higher than AD only.

A novel Upflow Anaerobic Solid State (UASS) reactor was used for biogas production from fibrous feedstock. Digestate from UASS reactor was hydrothermally carbonized into HTC biochar in a pressurized batch reactor. The integration of the two bioenergy concepts was applied in this study to increase overall bioenergy production.

Bewertung des integrierten Biogas-und Hydrothermale Karbonisierung für die Bioenergieproduktion

Lignocellulosic biomass is one of the most abundant yet underutilized renewable energy resources. Both anaerobic digestion (AD) and hydrothermal ...

Exploring the Effects of Atmospheric Forcings on Evaporation: Experimental Integration of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer and Shallow Subsurface

Evaporation is directly influenced by the interactions between the atmosphere, land surface and soil subsurface. This work aims to experimentally study evaporation under various surface boundary conditions to improve our current understanding and characterization of this multiphase phenomenon as well as to validate numerical heat and mass transfer theories that couple Navier-Stokes flow in the atmosphere and Darcian flow in the porous media. Experimental data were collected using a unique soil tank apparatus interfaced with a small climate controlled wind tunnel. The experimental apparatus was instrumented with a suite of state of the art sensor technologies for the continuous and autonomous collection of soil moisture, soil thermal properties, soil and air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed. This experimental apparatus can be used to generate data under well controlled boundary conditions, allowing for better control and gathering of accurate data at scales of interest not feasible in the field. Induced airflow at several distinct wind speeds over the soil surface resulted in unique behavior of heat and mass transfer during the different evaporative stages.

A protocol for the design and construction of a soil tank interfaced to a small climate controlled wind tunnel to study the effects of atmospheric forcings on evaporation is presented. Both the soil tank and wind tunnel are instrumented with sensor technologies for the continuous in situ measurement of environmental conditions.

Ausflüge in die Auswirkungen der Luft Antriebe auf Verdunstung: Experimental Integration der atmosphärischen Grenzschicht und oberflächennahen Untergrundes

Evaporation is directly influenced by the interactions between the atmosphere, land surface and soil subsurface. This work aims to experimentally study ...

Experimental Protocol for Detecting Cyanobacteria in Liquid and Solid Samples with an Antibody Microarray Chip

Global warming and eutrophication make some aquatic ecosystems behave as true bioreactors that trigger rapid and massive cyanobacterial growth; this has relevant health and economic consequences. Many cyanobacterial strains are toxin producers, and only a few cells are necessary to induce irreparable damage to the environment. Therefore, water-body authorities and administrations require rapid and efficient early-warning systems providing reliable data to support their preventive or curative decisions. This manuscript reports an experimental protocol for the in-field detection of toxin-producing cyanobacterial strains by using an antibody microarray chip with 17 antibodies (Abs) with taxonomic resolution (CYANOCHIP). Here, a multiplex fluorescent sandwich microarray immunoassay (FSMI) for the simultaneous monitoring of 17 cyanobacterial strains frequently found blooming in freshwater ecosystems, some of them toxin producers, is described. A microarray with multiple identical replicates (up to 24) of the CYANOCHIP was printed onto a single microscope slide to simultaneously test a similar number of samples. Liquid samples can be tested either by direct incubation with the antibodies (Abs) or after cell concentration by filtration through a 1- to 3-&#956;m filter. Solid samples, such as sediments and ground rocks, are first homogenized and dispersed by a hand-held ultrasonicator in an incubation buffer. They are then filtered (5 - 20 &#956;m) to remove the coarse material, and the filtrate is incubated with Abs. Immunoreactions are revealed by a final incubation with a mixture of the 17 fluorescence-labeled Abs and are read by a portable fluorescence detector. The whole process takes around 3 h, most of it corresponding to two 1-h periods of incubation. The output is an image, where bright spots correspond to the positive detection of cyanobacterial markers.

Experimental Protocol for Detecting Cyanobacteria in Liquid and Solid Samples with an Antibody Microarray Chip

The presence of cyanobacterial toxins in fresh water reservoirs for human consumption is a major concern for water management authorities. To evaluate the risk of water contamination, this article describes an protocol for the in-field detection of cyanobacterial strains in liquid and solid samples by using an antibody microarray chip.

Experimentelles Protokoll zum Nachweis<em&gt; Cyanobakterien</em&gt; In flüssigen und festen Proben mit einem Antikörper Microarray-Chip

Global warming and eutrophication make some aquatic ecosystems behave as true bioreactors that trigger rapid and massive cyanobacterial growth; this has ...

Protocol for Microplastics Sampling on the Sea Surface and Sample Analysis

Microplastic pollution in the marine environment is a scientific topic that has received increasing attention over the last decade. The majority of scientific publications address microplastic pollution of the sea surface. The protocol below describes the methodology for sampling, sample preparation, separation and chemical identification of microplastic particles. A manta net fixed on an &#187;A frame&#171; attached to the side of the vessel was used for sampling. Microplastic particles caught in the cod end of the net were separated from samples by visual identification and use of stereomicroscopes. Particles were analyzed for their size using an image analysis program and for their chemical structure using ATR-FTIR and micro FTIR spectroscopy. The described protocol is in line with recommendations for microplastics monitoring published by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter. This written protocol with video guide will support the work of researchers that deal with microplastics monitoring all over the world.

The protocol below describes the methodology for: microplastics sampling on the sea surface, separation of microplastic and chemical identification of particles. This protocol is in line with the recommendations for microplastics monitoring published by the MSFD Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter.

Protokoll für die Mikroplastik Probenahme auf der Meeresoberfläche und Probenanalyse

Microplastic pollution in the marine environment is a scientific topic that has received increasing attention over the last decade. The majority of ...

Protocol for Assessing the Relative Effects of Environment and Genetics on Antler and Body Growth for a Long-lived Cervid

Cervid phenotype can be placed into one of two categories: efficiency, which promotes survival over extravagant morphometric growth, and luxury, which promotes growth of large weaponry and body size. Populations of the same species display each phenotype depending on environmental conditions. Although antler and body size of male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) varies by physiographic region in Mississippi, USA and is strongly correlated with regional variation in nutritional quality, the effects of population-level genetics from native stocks and previous re-stocking efforts cannot be disregarded. This protocol describes how we designed a controlled study, where other factors that influence phenotype, such as age and nutrition, are controlled. We brought wild-caught pregnant females and six-month-old fawns from three distinct physiographic regions in Mississippi, USA to the Mississippi State University Rusty Dawkins Memorial Deer Unit. Deer from the same region were bred to produce a second generation of offspring, allowing us to assess generational responses and maternal effects. All deer ate the same high-quality (20% crude protein deer pellet) diet ad libitum. We uniquely marked each neonate and recorded body mass, hind foot, and total body length. Each subsequent fall, we sedated individuals via remote injection and sampled the same morphometrics plus antlers of adults. We found that all morphometrics increased in size from first to second generation, with full compensation of antler size (regional variation no longer present) and partial compensation of body mass (some evidence of regional variation) evident in the second generation. Second generation males that originated from our poorest quality soil region displayed about a 40% increase in antler size and about a 25% increase in body mass when compared to their wild harvested counterparts. Our results suggest phenotypic variation of wild male white-tailed deer in Mississippi are more related to differences in nutritional quality than population-level genetics.

Phenotypic differences among cervid populations may be related to population-level genetics or nutrition; discerning which is difficult in the wild. This protocol describes how we designed a controlled study where nutritional variation was eliminated. We found that phenotypic variation of male white-tailed deer was more limited by nutrition than genetics.

Protokoll für die Beurteilung der relativen Auswirkungen von Umwelt und Genetik auf Geweih und Körperwachstum für eine langlebige Cervid

Cervid phenotype can be placed into one of two categories: efficiency, which promotes survival over extravagant morphometric growth, and luxury, which ...

Experimental Column Setup for Studying Anaerobic Biogeochemical Interactions Between Iron (Oxy)Hydroxides, Trace Elements, and Bacteria

Fate and speciation of trace elements (TEs), such as arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg), in aquifers are closely related to physio-chemical conditions, such as redox potential (Eh) and pH, but also to microbial activities that can play a direct or indirect role on speciation and/or mobility. Indeed, some bacteria can directly oxidize As(III) to As(V) or reduce As(V) to As(III). Likewise, bacteria are strongly involved in Hg cycling, either through its methylation, forming the neurotoxin monomethyl mercury, or through its reduction to elemental Hg&#176;. The fates of both As and Hg are also strongly linked to soil or aquifer composition; indeed, As and Hg can bind to organic compounds or (oxy)hydroxides, which will influence their mobility. In turn, bacterial activities such as iron (oxy)hydroxide reduction or organic matter mineralization can indirectly influence As and Hg sequestration. The presence of sulfate/sulfide can also strongly impact these particular elements through the formation of complexes such as thio-arsenates with As or metacinnabar with Hg.
Consequently, many important questions have been raised on the fate and speciation of As and Hg in the environment and how to limit their toxicity. However, due to their reactivity towards aquifer components, it is difficult to clearly dissociate the biogeochemical processes that occur and their different impacts on the fate of these TE.
To do so, we developed an original, experimental, column setup that mimics an aquifer with As- or Hg-iron-oxide rich areas versus iron depleted areas, enabling a better understanding of TE biogeochemistry in anoxic conditions. The following protocol gives step by step instructions for the column set-up either for As or Hg, as well as an example with As under iron and sulfate reducing conditions.

Experimental Column Setup for Studying Anaerobic Biogeochemical Interactions Between Iron OxyHydroxides, Trace Elements, and Bacteria

Fate and speciation of arsenic and mercury in aquifers are closely related to physio-chemical conditions and microbial activity. Here, we present an original experimental column setup that mimics an aquifer and enables a better understanding of trace element biogeochemistry in anoxic conditions. Two examples are presented, combining geochemical and microbiological approaches.

Experimentelle Spalte Setup für das Studium der anaerober biogeochemischer Interaktionen zwischen Eisen (Oxy) Hydroxide, Spurenelemente und Bakterien

Fate and speciation of trace elements (TEs), such as arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg), in aquifers are closely related to physio-chemical conditions, such as ...

Collection and Extraction of Occupational Air Samples for Analysis of Fungal DNA

Traditional methods of identifying fungal exposures in occupational environments, such as culture and microscopy-based approaches, have several limitations that have resulted in the exclusion of many species. Advances in the field over the last two decades have led occupational health researchers to turn to molecular-based approaches for identifying fungal hazards. These methods have resulted in the detection of many species within indoor and occupational environments that have not been detected using traditional methods. This protocol details an approach for determining fungal diversity within air samples through genomic DNA extraction, amplification, sequencing, and taxonomic identification of fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions. ITS sequencing results in the detection of many fungal species that are either not detected or difficult to identify to species level using culture or microscopy. While these methods do not provide quantitative measures of fungal burden, they offer a new approach to hazard identification and can be used to determine overall species richness and diversity within an occupational environment.

Determining the fungal diversity within an environment is a method utilized in occupational health studies to identify health hazards. This protocol describes DNA extraction from occupational air samples for amplification and sequencing of fungal ITS regions. This approach detects many fungal species that can be overlooked by traditional assessment methods.

Erfassung und Gewinnung von betrieblichen Luftproben für Analyse der Pilz DNA

Traditional methods of identifying fungal exposures in occupational environments, such as culture and microscopy-based approaches, have several ...

Experimental Protocol for Detecting Mitochondrial Function in Hepatocytes Exposed to Organochlorine Pesticides

This paper presents detailed methods on detecting hepatic mitochondrial function for a better understanding the cause of metabolic disorders caused by environmental organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in hepatocytes. HepG2 cells were exposed to &#946;-hexachlorocyclohexane (&#946;-HCH) for 24 h at an equivalent dose of internal exposure in general population. Ultrastructure in hepatocytes was examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to show the damage of mitochondria. Mitochondrial function was further evaluated by mitochondrial fluorescence intensity, adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) levels, oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) in HepG2 cells incubated with &#946;-HCH. The mitochondria fluorescence intensity after stained by mitochondrial green fluorescent probe was observed with a fluorescence microscopy. The luciferin-luciferase reaction was used to determine ATP levels. The MMP was detected by the cationic dye JC-1 and analyzed under flow cytometry. OCR was measured with an extracellular flux analyzer. In summary, these protocols were used in detecting mitochondrial function in hepatocytes with to investigate mitochondria damages.

Understanding the influence of environmental organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) on mitochondrial function in hepatocytes is important in exploring the mechanism of OCPs causing metabolic disorders. This paper presents detailed methods on detecting hepatic mitochondrial function.

Experimentelles Protokoll zum Nachweis der mitochondrialen Funktion in Hepatozyten, die Organochlor-Pestiziden ausgesetzt sind

This paper presents detailed methods on detecting hepatic mitochondrial function for a better understanding the cause of metabolic disorders caused by ...

The Hawaii Protocol for Scientific Monitoring of Coffee Berry Borer: a Model for Coffee Agroecosystems Worldwide

Coffee berry borer (CBB) is the most devastating insect pest for coffee crops worldwide. We developed a scientific monitoring protocol that is aimed at capturing and quantifying the dynamics and impact of this invasive insect pest as well as the development of its host plant across a heterogeneous landscape. The cornerstone of this comprehensive monitoring system is timely georeferenced data collection on CBB movement, coffee berry infestation, mortality by the fungus Beauveria bassiana, and coffee plant phenology via a mobile electronic data recording application. This electronic data collection system allows field records to be georeferenced through built-in global positioning systems, and is backed by a network of weather stations and records of farm management practices. Comprehensive monitoring of CBB and host plant dynamics is an essential part of an area-wide project in Hawaii to aggregate landscape-level data for research to improve management practices. Coffee agroecosystems in other parts of the world that experience highly variable environmental and socioeconomic factors will also benefit from implementing this protocol, in that it will drive the development of customized integrated pest management (IPM) to manage CBB populations.

Comprehensive monitoring of coffee berry borer and host plant dynamics is essential for aggregating landscape-level data to improve management of this invasive pest. Here, we present a protocol for scientific monitoring of coffee berry borer movement, infestation, mortality, coffee plant phenology, weather, and farm management via a mobile electronic data recording application.

Das Hawaii-Protokoll für die wissenschaftliche Begleitung des Kaffee Berry Borer: ein Modell für Kaffee Agrarökosystemen weltweit

Coffee berry borer (CBB) is the most devastating insect pest for coffee crops worldwide. We developed a scientific monitoring protocol that is aimed at ...