We would like to thank Dr. Jennifer A. Zallen for providing the Sqh-GFP Drosophila line and support for the initial development of this technique, and Dr. Francois Schweisguth for providing the Notch-GFP Drosophila line. This work was supported by funding from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32270809) to H.H.Yu, generous financial and staff support from the School of Life Sciences, SUSTech, and funding to Y. Yan from Shenzhen Science and Technology Innovation Commission/JCYJ20200109140201722.

The experiments were conducted in accordance with the guidelines and approval of the School of Life Sciences, SUSTech University. The organism used is Drosophila melanogaster, and the genotypes are Notch-Knockin-GFP (Chromosome X) and Sqh-sqh-GFP (Chromosome II), generously provided by the labs of Dr. Francois Schweisguth (Institute Pasteur) and Dr. Jennifer Zallen (Sloan Kettering Institute), respectively. While this protocol mainly focuses on aspects of antibody labeling and live imaging, please refer to published reports for more detailed descriptions of Drosophila embryo collection and injection15,16.
1. Fluorescent labeling of antibodies
<ol>
	<li>Preferably, use monoclonal antibodies or nanobodies for the protein of interest. Prepare the stock concentration of antibodies at 1 mg/mL or higher. 
	&#8203;NOTE: In this study, GFP nanobody (see Table of Materials) is used as an example. The commercially available GFP nanobody is packaged at a concentration of 1.0 mg/mL and a volume of 250 &#181;L. Additionally, a commercially available antibody labeling kit (see Table of Materials) is utilized, which conjugates Alexa Fluor 594 to primary amines of proteins through a succinimidyl ester reaction11. Importantly, this labeling process does not significantly alter the antibody concentration.</li>
	<li>Prepare a 1 M sodium bicarbonate solution by resuspending Component B (provided in the antibody labeling kit) in 1 mL of deionized water.</li>
	<li>Adjust the antibody concentration to 1.0 mg/mL, then add 1/10th volume (10 &#181;L for 100 &#181;L GFP nanobody) of the 1 M sodium bicarbonate solution.</li>
	<li>Add 110 &#181;L of the antibody mix (from step 1.3) directly to the tube containing Alexa Fluor 594 dye. Invert to mix (do not vortex) and incubate on a rotator for 1 h at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Assemble the purification column from the conjugation kit (see Table of Materials). Prepare a 1.5 mL resin bed (provided in the antibody labeling kit) and centrifuge the column at 1100 x g for 3 min at room temperature (RT) to remove excess liquid from the resin.</li>
	<li>Add the reaction mix (from step 1.4) dropwise to the top of the resin column and centrifuge at 1100 x g for 5 min at 4 &#176;C to collect the labeled antibody. The collected antibody should appear pink in color, and the volume should be slightly less than 100 &#181;L. Store in foil-wrapped or dark-colored tubes at 4 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Drosophila embryos
<ol>
	<li>Place 200 newly hatched adult Drosophila in a plastic cylinder-shaped cage (diameter = 5 cm, height = 8 cm) with a male-to-female ratio of 1: 10. Seal one side with porous metal mesh for ventilation and the other side with a fruit-juice/yeast-paste agar plate.</li>
	<li>Change the plate every 12 h for three days before embryo collection. This allows synchronization of Drosophila egg laying and improves collection efficiency.</li>
	<li>On the day of injection, change the cage to a fruit-juice plate with minimal yeast paste and collect embryos at 25 &#176;C for 1 h. If the first round of collection does not yield sufficient embryos (&#60;50 embryos), discard the first plate and repeat this step for a second round of collection until more than 100 embryos are laid within 1 h.</li>
	<li>Remove the plate from the cage to stop the egg laying and incubate at 25 &#176;C for another 2 h to obtain embryos that are 2-3 h old. The correct stage of embryos is critical for the success of antibody injection.</li>
	<li>To remove the eggshell of embryos, add 2 mL of 50% bleach to the fruit-juice plate and gently dislodge embryos from the plate using a paintbrush (Figure 2A-4). Often, embryos will be laid directly on top of the yeast paste. In this case, it is acceptable to brush the yeast paste into the bleach solution to collect all the embryos.</li>
	<li>Incubate the floating embryos in 50% bleach for 2 min and swirl the fruit-juice plate every 30 s to improve the efficiency of eggshell removal.</li>
	<li>Transfer the embryo/bleach mix by pouring it into a 70 &#181;m nylon cell strainer (Figure 2A-7). Wash the embryos thoroughly using a water bottle to remove any residual bleach and yeast paste. Dry the cell strainer completely with paper towels, ensuring that any excess water around the embryos is removed.</li>
</ol>
3. Embryo alignment and desiccation
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a 5 cm x 5 cm x 0.5 cm (width, length, height) 4% agarose gel (Figure 2A-9) and allow the gel to cool down to room temperature. Cut a 1 cm x 3 cm x 0.5 cm (width, length, height) agarose block using a clean razor blade and place the block on a glass slide (Figure 2A-2). Examine the gel block under the dissecting scope to ensure that the edges are cut straight, and the surface is flat and dry.</li>
	<li>Transfer embryos from the strainer onto the gel block using a paintbrush. Spread the embryos evenly along the midline of the block by brushing gently. Ideally, clusters of embryos are separated into single ones or doublets without touching each other.</li>
	<li>Prepare a tweezer with two legs taped tightly together to create a single fine tip (Figure 2A-5). Under a dissecting scope, pick up individual embryos using the tweezer and place them along the long edge of the gel block. Align 20-30 embryos, ensuring their anterior-posterior axis is parallel to the edge (Figure 2C).</li>
	<li>Pipette 10 &#181;L heptane glue (see Table of Materials) at the center of a 24 mm x 50 mm coverslip (Figure 2A-1) and spread the glue into a 0.5 cm x 3 cm rectangular area using a pipette tip. Wait for the glue to completely dry before use.</li>
	<li>Place the glass slide with the gel block at the edge of the desk, with embryos facing outward. Lift the coverslip with glue using a flat-tip tweezer (Figure 2A-6) and hold it still on top of the embryos, with the glue side facing toward the embryos at a tilted angle of around 45 degrees. 
	NOTE: Gently press the coverslip against the gel block so that the embryos will be in contact with the glue, and then quickly release the pressure and lift the coverslip. The amount of tension applied is critical so that embryos can be stably attached to the glue without being pressed too hard and bursting.</li>
	<li>Pipette 10 &#181;L water at the center of a new glass slide and place the coverslip with the embryos on top of it, with the side of the embryo facing upwards (Figure 2B). Ensure to use water instead of nail polish or other adhesive glue for attaching the coverslip to the glass slide, as this side of the coverslip will be placed directly on top of the confocal lens for live imaging.</li>
	<li>Dry the embryos in a desiccation chamber (Figure 2A-3) (see Table of Materials) for 10-15 min until the vitelline membrane wrinkles (Figure 2E). The required time may vary with the humidity of the room and should be experimentally tested for each lab condition.</li>
	<li>Pipette 40 &#181;L of halocarbon oil (a mix of type 27 and type 700 at a 1: 1 ratio in volume, see Table of Materials) at one end of the embryo strip. Tilt the slide until the halocarbon oil covers the entire surface of the embryos.</li>
</ol>
4. Antibody Injection and imaging
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a few injection glass needles using a micropipette puller (see Table of Materials for parameter settings) and load each needle with 5 &#181;L of AlexaFluor-labeled antibody solution (from step 1.6).</li>
	<li>Place a 25 mm x 25 mm coverslip on top of a glass slide. Pipette 40 &#181;L of halocarbon oil and spread it along the edge of the coverslip.</li>
	<li>Under the injection scope, align the tip of the needle against the edge of the coverslip under oil. Adjust the injection air pressure of the picopump (see Table of Materials) so that one pump generates one bubble filled with antibodies. The bubble diameter should be limited to 20-50 &#181;m (Figure 2F).</li>
	<li>Replace the empty glass slide with one containing embryos under oil. Align the injection needle tip perpendicularly against the anterior-posterior axis of the embryos (Figure 2D,G).</li>
	<li>Check the stage of the embryos to ensure that most have initiated cellularization but have not yet started gastrulation (stage 4 and stage 5), remaining as a syncytium (Figure 2F,G). 
	NOTE: The hallmark of this stage is the absence of any grooves or folds and the presence of an oval-shaped, dark-colored yolk sac visible at the center of the embryo. Morphological characterization of the embryo stage under oil is based on the book chapter &#34;Stages of Drosophila Embryogenesis&#34; by Volker Hartenstein17.</li>
	<li>Use the X-Y stage manipulator to move embryos toward the needle until the tip arrives at the center of the yolk. Pump two to three times to inject antibodies into the yolk. Successful injection is indicated by the quick disappearance of the vitelline membrane wrinkle as embryos gain volume from the antibody solution (Figure 2G).</li>
	<li>Use the X-Y stage manipulator to move embryos away from the needle after injection and move downward to the next embryo. Repeat step 6 until all embryos on the slide are injected.</li>
	<li>Transfer the glass slide with injected embryos to a humidity chamber (Figure 2A-8). Incubate at 25 &#176;C until the desired stage of embryo development is achieved.</li>
	<li>Lift the 24&#160;mm x 50 mm coverslip off the glass slide and place it directly into the slide holder of the microscope. The side without embryos will be facing the objectives. Locate the embryos using a low-magnification lens under bright field illumination and switch to a 40x or 63x lens for high-resolution fluorescent live imaging.</li>
</ol>

Enhancing Protein Visualization with Antibody-Mediated Live Imaging

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The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

This presented procedure outlines the specialized method of fluorescence labeling with custom antibodies and subsequent injection into early-stage Drosophila embryos. This technique facilitates real-time visualization of proteins or post-translational modifications that exist in low quantities and are typically difficult to observe through conventional GFP/mCherry tagging methods.
Caution should be exercised when extending this method to make quantitative comparisons between wild-type...

Immunofluorescence is a cornerstone technique of modern cell biology originally developed by Albert Coons, which enables the detection of molecules at their native cellular compartments and characterization of the molecular compositions of subcellular organelles or machineries1. Coupled with genetic manipulations, immunofluorescence helps establish the now well-accepted concept that protein localization is essential for its function2. Aside from specific primary antibodies and bright fluorescent dyes, the success of this technique relies on a preliminary process named fixation and permeabilization, which preserves cellular morphologies, immobilizes antigens, and increases the accessibility of antibodies into intracellular compartments. Inevitably, the fixation and permeabilization process would kill cells and terminate all biological processes3. Therefore, immunofluorescence only provides snapshots of the life journey of proteins. However, many biological processes such as cell migration and divisions are dynamic in nature, requiring investigation of protein behaviors in a spatial-temporally resolved manner4,5.
To examine protein dynamics in living organisms, live imaging methods based on genetically encoded fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP)6 and high-speed confocal microscopes have been developed. Briefly, the protein of interest can be genetically manipulated to be fused with GFP7, and then ectopically expressed from viral or yeast promoters such as cytomegalovirus (CMV)8 or upstream activation sequence (UAS)9. Because GFP is autofluorescent in nature, no fluorophore-coupled antibodies are required to reveal the localization of target proteins, which bypasses the necessity of preliminary processes of fixation or permeabilization. Over the last two decades, fluorescent tags spanning the whole spectrum of wavelength have been developed10, enabling multi-color live imaging of several target proteins at the same time. However, compared to chemically engineered fluorescent dyes such as AlexaFluor or ATTO, the autofluorescence of these genetically encoded fluorescent proteins is relatively weak and unstable when expressed from endogenous promoters, especially during live imaging over longer time scales10. While this shortfall can be mitigated by over-expressing fluorescently tagged target proteins, many with enzymatic activities such as kinases and phosphatases severely disrupt normal biological processes if not expressed at physiological levels.
This protocol presents a method that enables photostable antibody-based target illumination in a live image setup, essentially allowing immunofluorescence without the process of fixation or permeabilization (Figure 1). Through a simple NHS-based primary amine reaction11, one can conjugate fluorescent dyes such as AlexaFluor 488 or 594 with essentially any primary antibody or GFP/HA/Myc nanobody12. Taking advantage of a developmental feature that all Drosophila embryonic cells share a common cytoplasm during the syncytium stage13, one can achieve antigen binding and illumination across entire embryos after the injection of dye-conjugated antibodies. With expanding libraries of endogenously tagged proteins available in Drosophila and other model systems14, this method can potentially broaden applications of these libraries by revealing dynamics of low-abundance fluorescently tagged proteins and other non-fluorescently tagged (HA/Myc-tagged) proteins in living tissues.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Sangon Biotech</td>
			<td>&#160;A620014&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 594 Antibody Labeling Kit</td>
			<td>Invitrogen&#160;</td>
			<td>A20185</td>
			<td>Purification column from step 1.6 is included in this kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biological Microscope</td>
			<td>SOPTOP</td>
			<td>EX20</td>
			<td>Eyepiece lens: PL 10X/20. Objective lens: 10x/0.25</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bleach</td>
			<td>Clorox&#174;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate Glass Capillaries</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>TW100F-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5245</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Strainer</td>
			<td>FALCON</td>
			<td>352350</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Desiccation chamber&#160;</td>
			<td>LOCK&#38;LOCK</td>
			<td>HSM8200</td>
			<td>320ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting Microscope</td>
			<td>Mshot</td>
			<td>MZ62</td>
			<td>Eyepiece lens: WF10X/22mm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double-sided Tape</td>
			<td>Scotch</td>
			<td>665</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fine Super Tweezer</td>
			<td>VETUS</td>
			<td>ST-14</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand&#8482; Cover Glasses: Rectangles</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>12-545F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand&#8482; Superfrost&#8482; Plus Microscope Slides</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>12-550-15</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forcep</td>
			<td>VETUS</td>
			<td>33A-SA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halocarbon oil 27</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H8773-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halocarbon oil 700</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H8898-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heptane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H2198-1L</td>
			<td>Heptane glue is made of double-sided tape immersed in heptane</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dehydration reagent&#160;</td>
			<td>TOKAI</td>
			<td>1-7315-01</td>
			<td>Fill to 90% volume of the dessication chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Manual Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>M3301R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette puller</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>PUL-1000</td>
			<td>Procedure: step 1, Heat: 290, Force:300, Distance:1.00, Delay:50. 
			Step 2, Heat: 290, Force:300, Distance:2.21, Delay:50&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pneumatic picopump</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>PV 830</td>
			<td>Eject: 20 psi;&#160; Range: 100ms; Duration: timed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PY20</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz</td>
			<td>SC-508</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Square petri dishes</td>
			<td>Biosharp</td>
			<td>BS-100-SD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GFP nanobody</td>
			<td>Chromotek</td>
			<td>gt</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualizing low-abundance proteins and post-translational modifications in living drosophila embryos via fluorescent antibody injection

Visualization of proteins in living cells using GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein) and other fluorescent tags has greatly improved understanding of protein localization, dynamics, and function. Compared to immunofluorescence, live imaging more accurately reflects protein localization without potential artifacts arising from tissue fixation. Importantly, live imaging enables quantitative and temporal characterization of protein levels and localization, crucial for understanding dynamic biological processes such as cell movement or division. However, a major limitation of fluorescent tagging approaches is the need for sufficiently high protein expression levels to achieve successful visualization. Consequently, many endogenously tagged fluorescent proteins with relatively low expression levels cannot be detected. On the other hand, ectopic expression using viral promoters can sometimes lead to protein mislocalization or functional alterations in physiological contexts. To address these limitations, an approach is presented that utilizes highly sensitive antibody-mediated protein detection in living embryos, essentially performing immunofluorescence without the need for tissue fixation. As proof of principle, endogenously GFP-tagged Notch receptor that is barely detectable&#160;in living embryos can be successfully visualized after antibody injection. Furthermore, this approach was adapted to visualize post-translational modifications (PTMs) in living embryos, allowing the detection of temporal changes in tyrosine phosphorylation patterns during early embryogenesis and revealing a novel subpopulation of phosphotyrosine (p-Tyr) underneath apical membranes. This approach can be modified to accommodate other protein-specific, tag-specific, or PTM-specific antibodies and should be compatible with other injection-amenable model organisms or cell lines. This protocol opens new possibilities for live imaging of low-abundance proteins or PTMs that were previously challenging to detect using traditional fluorescent tagging methods.

Author Spotlight: Unveiling the Dynamics of Mechanical and Biochemical Signals in Animal Morphogenesis Research 

Visualizing Low-Abundance Proteins and Post-Translational Modifications in Living Drosophila Embryos via Fluorescent Antibody Injection

We aim to understand how mechanical and biochemical signals correlate animal morphogenesis, including the detection and the response to forces by cells and molecules. More molecules have been discovered to be mechanosensitive, functioning differently under varying levels of tension. However, the physiological context and the function of these force-sensitive events remain largely unknown.Due to the dynamic nature of force-sensitive events, our field largely relies on high-speed fluorescence imaging and time-lapse recording to capture molecular and cellular behaviors. Many fluorescently-tagged proteins are not bright enough to be imaged, and it requires spatial-temporal resolution without significant bleach. On the other hand, traditional immunofluorescence methods can only capture a snapshot of molecular and cellular fixture after fixation.This method paves the way to dynamically track the localization of many low-abundance protein receptors of major signaling pathways, such as Notch, Wnt, and the BMP pathways. Eventually, in addition to the traditional linear signaling cascades, we can pinpoint and where the signaling events occur at the subcellular scales.

To demonstrate the advantages of the antibody injection method over fluorescent-tag-based live imaging or immunofluorescence, two case studies are provided that characterize the dynamic localization of a low-abundance transmembrane receptor, Notch, and a type of post-translational modification called tyrosine phosphorylation in living embryos.
Notch signaling activity plays a major role in cell fate determination during embryogenesis and adult organ homeostasis18,<...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Unveiling the Dynamics of Mechanical and Biochemical Signals in Animal Morphogenesis Research at JoVE.com

This protocol describes the customized antibody-based fluorescence labeling and injection into early Drosophila embryos to enable live imaging of low-abundance proteins or post-translational modifications that are challenging to detect using traditional GFP/mCherry-tag approaches.

Visualization of proteins in living cells using GFP (Green Fluorescent Protein) and other fluorescent tags has greatly improved understanding of protein ...

visualizing-low-abundance-proteins-post-translational-modifications

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Fluorescent Labeling of Antibodies for Imaging Low Abundance Proteins in Drosophila

Fluorescent Labeling of Antibodies for Imaging Low Abundance Proteins in  Drosophila   

Preparation and Alignment of Drosophila Embryos for Injecting Fluorescently Labeled Antibodies

Preparation and Alignment of Drosophila  Embryos for Injecting Fluorescently Labeled Antibodies  

Injecting Fluorescently Labeled Antibodies in Live Drosophila Embryos and Imaging of Low Abundance Proteins

Injecting Fluorescently Labeled Antibodies in Live Drosophila  Embryos and Imaging of Low Abundance Proteins  

664 Views.  SUSTech University.  This protocol describes the customized antibody-based fluorescence labeling and injection into early Drosophila embryos to enable live imaging of low-abundance proteins or post-translational modifications that are challenging to detect using traditional GFP/mCherry-tag approaches.

Enhancing Protein Visualization with Antibody-Mediated Live Imaging

Summary