behavior

JoVE Behavior documents observational and experimental techniques that seek to understand human and animal behavior. Work in this field includes analysis of genetic causes and physiological responses to internal or external stimuli as well as the implicated brain regions.

Comportamiento

biochemistry

JoVE Biochemistry publishes experiments that investigate the structure, function, and interactions of biological molecules. The video articles in this section demonstrate methods to study nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids as well as enzyme function, protein folding, molecular interactions and biochemical reactions.

Bioquímica

bioengineering

JoVE Bioengineering merges both physical and life sciences to understand and predict biological processes. Applying physical science tools to life science questions allow for the discovery of better technologies to measure, diagnose, and clinically treat disease.

Bioingeniería

biology

JoVE Biology welcomes all general biology research methodologies. Content in this section canvases all fields of cell, molecular, and organismal biology, ranging from new applications of standard techniques to novel approaches aimed at understanding the functions of life and living organisms. This diverse section includes, but is not limited to, techniques in physical biology, cellular biochemistry, genetics, physiology, systems biology and a combination of eukaryotic and prokaryotic model systems.

Biología

cancer research

JoVE Cancer Research illustrates experimental approaches in biomedical research and clinical practice aimed at understanding, detecting, treating and preventing cancer. The video articles in this section demonstrate methods to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of cancer, animal models of cancer research, development of new therapies and diagnostics, tumor imaging, chemical and radiation treatments, surgical procedures and improvements in therapy. These video articles offer researchers and clinical practitioners an efficient way to learn the technologies and experimental methods in cancer research.

Investigación sobre el cáncer

chemistry

JoVE Chemistry surveys a broad scope of chemical disciplines. This collection includes fundamental and applied research that investigates molecular interactions, properties, and structure spanning in the following core divisions: analytical, organic, organometallic, inorganic, bioinorganic, and biochemistry. This section also includes the design and preparation of materials and small molecules for advanced or unique applications.

Química

developmental biology

JoVE Developmental Biology publishes research methodologies in the field of developmental biology. This includes methods that are used to study biological development in vitro and in vivo at the molecular, cellular, tissue, organ and whole organism levels.

Biología del Desarrollo

engineering

JoVE Engineering encompasses a broad range of experimental and instrumental techniques utilized in physics research. Investigations in this area strive to address and answer a broad range of scientific questions, such as device mechanisms and efficiencies, using physical tools. This approach often requires a combination of specialties, and research in this area tends to be interdisciplinary with contributions from mechanical, electrical, and chemical engineers.

Ingeniería

environment

JoVE Environment is dedicated to research methodologies that address environmental concerns and seek to better understand Earth's ecosystem.  Special consideration is given to experimental methodologies that assess society’s impact on the environment, suggest solutions for protecting Earth’s resources, and develop sustainable fuel sources. Moving towards an environmentally conscious planet is a collaborative effort with contributions from both life and physical scientists.

Medio ambiente

genetics

JoVE Genetics publishes video articles demonstrating experimental approaches to investigate gene function and regulation. This includes methods to study gene expression, mutagenesis, epigenetics, genetic determinants of development, genetic disorders, population genetics and evolution.

Genética

immunology and infection

JoVE Immunology and Infection includes content from a variety of fields working toward a shared initiative of improving global health. Techniques evaluating the biological response to pathogens from the molecular to organismal level are presented as well as therapeutic agents and their efficacy in treating disease.

Inmunología e Infección

medicine

JoVE Medicine serves as a connection between basic research and clinical applications. Articles may present medical procedures, case studies or clinical trial methodologies. Included studies are often modeled towards predictive, preventative, personalized, and practical approaches to treatment of disease. The goal of research methodologies in this section is to improve overall patient care and prognosis.

Medicina

neuroscience

JoVE Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary section devoted to investigations of the structure, function, physiology, and pathophysiology of the brain and nervous system. Included methodologies range from molecular and cellular level studies to full central and peripheral neural systems. Potential treatment platforms and surgical techniques for neurological diseases and disorders are also presented in this section.

Neurociencias

jove journal

JoVE Journal

Revista de vídeos científicos. Revisada por pares. Multidisciplinaria. Indexada en PubMed y Web of Science.

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Research

Psychosurgery

Psychosurgery, the surgical alteration or permanent removal of brain tissue to alleviate severe psychological conditions, stands as one of the most radical and controversial treatments in the history of mental health care. Its development and application have evolved significantly, marked by dramatic shifts in scientific understanding and ethical perspectives.
Historical Development of Psychosurgery
In the 1930s, Portuguese neurologist Antonio Egas Moniz introduced a surgical procedure designed to sever neural pathways between the frontal lobe and thalamus. This intervention aimed to mitigate severe mental health disorders, including schizophrenia and severe anxiety. Despite its crude methodology, the surgeries gained recognition, and Moniz was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949.
Walter Freeman, an American neurologist, popularized and coined the term prefrontal lobotomy in the United States, introducing a simplified and faster technique that involved accessing the brain through the eye socket using a surgical instrument similar to an ice pick. Freeman performed over 3,000 lobotomies, often in public demonstrations, and fervently advocated for the procedure as a solution to various psychological disorders. However, his approach often overlooked long-term outcomes and ethical considerations.
Decline of Traditional Lobotomies
The widespread adoption of lobotomies from the 1930s to the 1960s resulted in significant and irreversible harm to many patients. Adverse effects included severe cognitive impairments, memory loss, emotional flatness, and personality changes. Coupled with the advent of psychiatric medications in the mid-1950s, which offered non-invasive alternatives, lobotomies fell out of favor. Reports of poor outcomes and heightened ethical scrutiny further discredited the procedure.
Modern Psychosurgical Techniques
Contemporary psychosurgery employs far more precise and controlled methods, targeting specific brain regions such as the amygdala or anterior cingulate cortex. Techniques like cingulotomy and capsulotomy are used to treat intractable psychiatric conditions such as severe obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and major depressive disorder. These procedures are guided by advanced imaging technologies to minimize damage to surrounding tissues.
Stringent regulations, such as institutional review boards, now govern psychosurgery, ensuring thorough patient evaluation, informed consent, and surgeon&#39;s competency. These measures aim to balance the potential benefits of psychosurgery with its inherent risks, emphasizing its use as a last resort when all other treatments have failed.
Ethical and Scientific Considerations
Despite technological advances, psychosurgery remains a contentious field. Critics point to the procedure&#39;s historical misuse and potential for unintended consequences, while proponents argue for its value in treating otherwise untreatable conditions. Ongoing research seeks to refine surgical techniques and deepen understanding of the brain, underscoring the need for a cautious and ethical approach to this powerful intervention.

Psychosurgery involves removing or permanently destroying brain tissue to treat severe psychological conditions, making it a controversial biomedical ...

Interpersonal Psychotherapy

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a structured, time-limited therapeutic approach initially developed to treat depression. It integrates key concepts from psychodynamic, humanistic, and cognitive-behavioral therapies, making it a uniquely eclectic framework. The therapy is rooted in the interpersonal theories of Adolph Meyer and Harry Stack Sullivan, as well as John Bowlby&#39;s attachment theory, and focuses on the interplay between interpersonal relationships and emotional well-being.
Foundations of Interpersonal Psychotherapy
The foundational premise of IPT is that interpersonal relationships significantly influence mood and psychological health. Sullivan emphasized the collaborative role of the therapist as a &#34;participant observer,&#34; working to identify and address maladaptive interpersonal patterns in the client&#39;s daily life. This focus on relationship dynamics distinguishes IPT from other therapeutic models. While it draws on psychodynamic concepts, IPT diverges from traditional psychodynamic therapy by explicitly emphasizing practical strategies to improve interpersonal functioning.
Structure and Scope of IPT
IPT is typically delivered in a short-term format, encompassing 12&#8211;16 sessions. The approach aims to enhance clients&#39; social skills, resolve interpersonal conflicts, and assist with life transitions, such as childbirth, retirement, or bereavement. The therapy is structured around specific problem areas identified during the initial assessment, such as role disputes, role transitions, unresolved grief, or interpersonal deficits. By addressing these areas, IPT helps clients develop healthier relationships and coping mechanisms.
Effectiveness Across Conditions
Originally designed to treat depression, IPT has demonstrated efficacy in combination with pharmacological treatments and as a standalone intervention. Clinical studies have shown its effectiveness in treating various conditions, including substance use disorders and eating disorders, with outcomes comparable to those achieved through cognitive-behavioral therapy. IPT&#39;s success lies in its ability to adapt its core principles to address the unique challenges associated with different mental health disorders.
The integration of theoretical insights with practical strategies makes IPT a versatile and evidence-supported approach, offering a collaborative pathway to improved interpersonal functioning and psychological health.

Interpersonal psychotherapy, or IPT, is an insight-based therapy focusing on the relationship between an individual&#39;s mood and their interpersonal ...

Community Based Intervention

Community-based interventions in mental health represent a paradigm shift from institution-centered care to treatments embedded within the fabric of local communities. By prioritizing inclusion and leveraging existing societal structures, this approach fosters a supportive environment conducive to addressing mental health challenges while promoting individual dignity and agency.
Foundations of Community Mental Health Programs
Central to the success of community-based interventions is the training of local stakeholders such as teachers, nurses, and community members. These individuals are equipped with fundamental counseling skills and are often involved in workshops aimed at stress management, substance abuse reduction, and interpersonal skill development. Such initiatives help extend mental health care beyond specialized professionals, making it more accessible and reducing stigma.
The deinstitutionalization movement of the 1960s marked the beginning of this transition. It was driven by concerns over the ethical failings of institutional care, which often subjected individuals to neglect and abuse, and by economic considerations regarding the unsustainable costs of long-term institutionalization. As individuals were reintegrated into communities, the focus shifted to creating support systems that address mental health in a holistic, culturally sensitive manner.
Empowerment and Sustainability
Community-based mental health programs emphasize empowerment, enabling individuals to actively engage in their recovery and integrate fully into familial and societal contexts. This approach, championed by community psychologists, seeks to cultivate long-term well-being by embedding care within the individual&#39;s social and cultural milieu.
However, these programs require robust support in terms of local resources and government funding. Sustainable initiatives are essential to ensure continuity in care and to prevent adverse outcomes, such as homelessness, for individuals with chronic mental health conditions. Investment in community-based interventions not only alleviates the strain on formal healthcare systems but also promotes a more inclusive and equitable approach to mental healthcare.

Community-based intervention provides care within society and family, fostering inclusion and treating mental health in familiar settings like community ...

Couples Therapy

Couples therapy is a therapeutic approach designed to help individuals in intimate relationships address conflicts, improve communication, and foster healthier dynamics. It is appropriate for couples at various stages, including those who are dating, married, or in long-term partnerships, and aims to support partners in navigating their unique relational challenges.
Core Principles and Techniques
Couples therapy often incorporates cognitive-behavioral principles to identify and modify negative patterns within relationships. Therapists guide partners in understanding how their individual backgrounds, beliefs, past experiences, and behaviors influence their interactions. This insight is crucial in addressing issues such as poor communication, infidelity, jealousy, sexual difficulties, substance abuse, and the complexities of blended families or two-career households.
Therapists use various techniques such as validation, reframing, structural change, and detriangulation to promote relational growth. Validation involves acknowledging each partner&#39;s emotions and beliefs, as well as fostering mutual respect and understanding. Reframing helps couples view their challenges as shared problems rather than assigning blame, encouraging collaboration. The structural change focuses on reorganizing interaction patterns to create a supportive and functional environment, while detriangulation addresses external conflicts that may be diverting attention from the relationship itself.
Navigating High-Conflict Relationships
High-conflict relationships present unique challenges due to heightened emotions and volatility. Therapists act as mediators, helping partners navigate intense disagreements and work toward constructive resolutions. These situations require a nuanced approach to de-escalate tensions and facilitate productive dialogue.
Goals and Outcomes
The primary goal of couples therapy is to equip partners with tools to enhance understanding and foster healthier interactions. For some, this process strengthens the relationship, while for others, therapy may reveal irreconcilable differences, leading to a mutual decision to separate. Regardless of the outcome, therapy emphasizes clarity and informed decision-making, enabling couples to navigate their circumstances with greater insight and confidence.
By addressing relational dynamics and promoting constructive change, couples therapy supports partners in building more harmonious connections or reaching resolutions that align with their well-being.

Couples therapy helps individuals in intimate relationships resolve conflicts and improve dynamics. Couples may be dating, married, or in long-term ...

Self-Help Support Groups

Self-help support groups are voluntary, community-based organizations that provide a platform for individuals with shared concerns to exchange support, insights, and practical strategies for coping with life challenges. Typically led by group members or paraprofessionals, these groups form a cornerstone of mental health care, especially in reaching populations that are underserved by traditional healthcare systems.
Accessibility and Cost-Effectiveness
One of the primary strengths of self-help groups is their accessibility. By leveraging community resources and operating at a low cost, they serve individuals who might otherwise face barriers to mental health services, such as those with limited financial means or lower levels of education. These groups offer an inclusive space where participants can openly share experiences, seek advice, and explore solutions in a non-judgmental environment.
The Power of Shared Experience
The effectiveness of self-help groups is rooted in their emphasis on shared experience. Participants gain unique insights from peers who have faced similar challenges, fostering a sense of credibility and understanding that professionals may not always provide. For instance, a rape survivor might find meaningful support and guidance from another survivor who has successfully navigated a similar recovery process. These interactions not only validate individual experiences but also enhance emotional resilience and promote self-efficacy.
Applications in Mental Health and Beyond
Self-help groups address a wide array of issues, including substance abuse, chronic illnesses such as heart disease or cancer, and psychological trauma. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) exemplifies the impact of these groups, with research highlighting its role in reducing alcohol consumption through mechanisms such as enhanced social networks, improved self-efficacy, increased spirituality, and alleviation of negative emotions.
The Role of Online Platforms
Advances in technology have expanded the reach of self-help groups through online platforms, offering greater accessibility for individuals unable to attend in-person meetings. However, virtual settings pose unique challenges, including the risk of misinformation. In the absence of guidance from a trained professional, members may lack the expertise and knowledge to provide optimal advice. This increases the potential for harmful group dynamics, as evidenced by certain pro-anorexia communities. Effective moderation by group leaders can mitigate these risks, ensuring a safe and constructive environment for all members.
Self-help groups exemplify the value of peer-led initiatives in mental health care, bridging gaps in accessibility and fostering collective resilience through shared understanding and mutual support.

Self-help support groups are voluntary organizations where individuals with common interests meet regularly to discuss shared concerns and provide mutual ...

Family Therapy

Family therapy conceptualizes psychological challenges as arising from dysfunctional interactions within the family unit, rather than as isolated issues within individuals. This approach seeks to address and transform the patterns of communication, roles, and relationships within families to promote healthier dynamics and emotional well-being for all members.
Strategic Family Therapy
Strategic family therapy emphasizes resolving communication barriers and improving problem-solving abilities among family members. Therapists employ carefully planned tasks, known as directives, to alter dysfunctional interaction patterns. One notable technique is the use of paradoxical requests, where problematic behaviors are reframed in unexpected ways to elicit change. For example, a couple prone to frequent arguments might be instructed to argue more intentionally, thereby reframing their conflict as an expression of connection. This paradoxical approach often leads to reduced conflict and an improved relationship dynamic by altering the way family members perceive and engage in their interactions.
Structural Family Therapy
Structural family therapy focuses on reorganizing the family&#39;s hierarchical structure and boundaries to enhance functionality. Therapists actively participate in family activities to observe and modify interactions, fostering healthier dynamics. For instance, helping a teenager who initially sought their family&#39;s attention by refusing to eat to express their needs verbally, ultimately leading them to stop using food refusal as a way to seek affection. This direct engagement strengthens communication, reinforces healthy boundaries, and empowers the family to support each member&#39;s needs effectively.
Effectiveness and Applications
Research demonstrates that family therapy is as effective as individual therapy, offering distinct advantages for families dealing with relational or systemic issues. By addressing problems within their broader context, family therapy promotes growth and healing not just for individuals but for the family as a cohesive unit. Approaches such as strategic and structural therapy exemplify the flexibility and efficacy of this modality, making it a valuable tool in fostering healthier familial relationships and emotional resilience.

Family therapy views psychological problems as rooted in dysfunctional family systems rather than in an individual.
The primary focus of treatment is the ...

Electroconvulsive Therapy

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or shock therapy, remains a critical biomedical intervention for severe, treatment-resistant depression. While its origins can be traced back to Hippocrates&#39; observations that malaria-induced convulsions alleviated mental illness, modern ECT has evolved significantly from its earlier, more primitive applications. First introduced in 1938 by Ugo Cerletti and his colleagues, ECT involves inducing controlled seizures using electrical currents. In its early years, patients were subjected to the procedure without anesthesia, leading to severe bodily convulsions and a barbaric reputation. Today, however, ECT is far more refined and safer due to anesthesia, muscle relaxants, and targeted stimulation.
The current ECT procedure involves administering a brief electric pulse, typically lasting less than a second, through electrodes placed on the patient&#39;s scalp. This electrical current triggers a seizure lasting approximately 60 seconds. Patients are rendered unconscious with anesthesia and muscle relaxants to prevent physical convulsions, ensuring minimal discomfort. Increasingly, the stimulation is applied to the brain&#39;s right hemisphere, reducing the risk of memory loss and cognitive impairments, which are among ECT&#39;s most debated side effects. Patients awaken shortly after the procedure with no memory of the treatment, and recovery occurs within 30 minutes.
ECT is primarily used for individuals with severe depression who do not respond to medication or psychotherapy. It is particularly effective for cases involving acute suicidality, offering rapid mood improvement. Studies report that after two to four weeks of treatments &#8212; typically three sessions per week &#8212; approximately 70% of patients experience significant relief. This success has been attributed to ECT&#39;s ability to reduce overactivity in brain regions associated with depression and potentially stimulate neurogenesis, promoting the growth of new neurons and synaptic connections.
Despite its effectiveness, ECT remains controversial due to its side effects, including memory loss and cognitive impairment. Though modern advancements, such as unilateral stimulation and refined protocols, have reduced these risks, they still warrant careful consideration. Long-term efficacy also remains uncertain, as relapses can occur, necessitating maintenance therapies like antidepressants or exercise. Nonetheless, ECT continues to save lives, especially in severe cases of depression where other treatments fail. For many, its benefits far outweigh the risks.

Electroconvulsive therapy, or ECT, commonly known as shock therapy, originated from Hippocrates&#39; observations in ancient Greece, who noted that ...

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBTs) are grounded in the belief that our thoughts profoundly influence our emotions and actions. Advocates of CBT emphasize three core assumptions: first, that cognitions are identifiable and measurable; second, that they are central to psychological functioning; and third, that irrational or maladaptive beliefs can be replaced with rational and adaptive ones. This transformative approach to therapy has paved the way for specific models such as Albert Ellis&#39;s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which integrates both cognitive and behavioral elements to foster mental well-being.
The ABCs of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Ellis introduced REBT in the mid-1950s as a pioneering cognitive-behavioral framework. At its core lies the ABC model, which outlines the interaction between activating events (A), belief systems (B), and emotional and behavioral consequences (C). For instance, two individuals receiving the same test score may exhibit vastly different responses due to disparities in their belief systems. Rational beliefs, characterized by flexibility and self-acceptance, contrast sharply with irrational beliefs, which often involve unrealistic demands and catastrophic thinking.
To address irrational beliefs, Ellis extended the ABC model to include disputation (D), effective new beliefs (E), and fostering desired feelings and behaviors (F). Therapists employing REBT actively challenge clients&#39; maladaptive beliefs and encourage rational rethinking. Assignments or &#8220;homework&#8221; often reinforce this process, such as tasks designed to confront and disprove fears tied to irrational thoughts.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Expanding on Rationality
CBT builds upon the principles of cognitive psychology and behaviorism, focusing on present cognitive and behavioral interactions rather than past influences. It posits that psychological disorders stem from illogical thought patterns, which, when restructured into logical and rational frameworks, lead to symptom alleviation. The three overarching goals of CBT include symptom relief, equipping clients with coping strategies, and fostering a shift from self-defeating to self-enhancing thoughts.
By blending cognitive interventions with behavioral techniques, CBT offers a robust, action-oriented approach to mental health, emphasizing the transformative power of rational thinking and adaptive behavior.

In the mid-1950s, Albert Ellis developed rational emotive behavior therapy or REBT, a key example of a cognitive-behavioral approach.
He introduced the ...

Cognitive Therapy

Cognitive therapy, pioneered by Aaron T. Beck in the 1960s, is a structured approach to addressing psychological distress by focusing on the influence of thoughts on emotions and behaviors. All cognitive therapies involve the basic assumption that human beings have control over their feelings, and that how individuals feel about something depends on how they think about it. Unlike psychoanalytic methods that delve into unconscious processes or humanistic approaches emphasizing self-actualization, cognitive therapy targets distorted or dysfunctional thought patterns, aiming to restructure these to alleviate maladaptive behaviors and emotional responses.
Principles of Cognitive Therapy
Central to cognitive therapy is the concept of cognitive restructuring, which involves identifying and modifying distorted thinking patterns (cognitive distortions). For example, a client may interpret a single academic failure as indicative of global incompetence, leading to feelings of worthlessness. Through guided questioning, therapists challenge these irrational beliefs and help clients develop more accurate, rational perspectives. This active and structured process distinguishes cognitive therapy as an action-oriented approach rather than one focused on uncovering historical psychological roots.
Application to Depression and Other Disorders
Initially developed to treat depression, cognitive therapy has demonstrated effectiveness across a range of psychological disorders. Beck&#39;s work emphasized the role of self-defeating attitudes and negative automatic thoughts in perpetuating depressive states, even amidst positive life circumstances. By addressing these maladaptive cognitions, clients can reframe their interpretations of situations, reducing distress and promoting healthier emotional responses.

Cognitive therapy is a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of thoughts in causing emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors.
It aims to ...

Beck's Cognitive Therapy

Cognitive therapy is a psychological approach designed to address distortions in thinking, which can lead to negative emotions and unrealistic beliefs. These cognitive distortions often influence how individuals interpret and respond to situations, exacerbating emotional distress. Below are some prevalent cognitive distortions, their characteristics, and examples of how they manifest in thought processes.
Arbitrary Inference
Arbitrary inference involves making conclusions without sufficient evidence, often based solely on personal assumptions. This type of distortion disregards facts and relies on conjecture. For example, an individual may interpret a canceled lunch appointment as evidence that their friend is seeing someone else, despite having no supporting evidence. This tendency to jump to conclusions can lead to unwarranted anxiety or mistrust.
Selective Thinking
Selective thinking occurs when a person fixates on one aspect of a situation, ignoring other relevant details that might provide balance or perspective. For instance, a student might receive praise for their work but focus entirely on a minor critique, concluding that their performance was poor. This cognitive bias limits the individual&#39;s ability to see the broader context of their achievements or the constructive nature of feedback.
Overgeneralization
Overgeneralization involves drawing broad, often exaggerated conclusions based on a single incident. For example, someone reprimanded at work might irrationally assume that their work relationships are doomed and envision a cascade of negative outcomes. This distortion perpetuates feelings of hopelessness and unwarranted despair.
Magnification and Minimization
In this distortion, individuals amplify the significance of negative events while downplaying positive ones. For example, a student who consistently excels academically might catastrophize a single mediocre grade as a sign of inevitable failure, disregarding their overall success. This imbalance skews self-assessment and fosters unwarranted negative self-perceptions.
Personalization
Personalization involves taking unwarranted responsibility for external events. For example, a person might attribute their partner&#39;s bad mood to their actions, ignoring external factors such as work-related stress. This distortion often results in misplaced guilt or self-blame.
Cognitive therapists aim to address these distortions by encouraging clients to evaluate their beliefs critically. Through structured questioning, such as examining the origin or evidence of a belief, clients are guided to identify and challenge illogical patterns. This process fosters more balanced and realistic thinking, improving emotional well-being and resilience.

Cognitive therapy, developed by Aaron T. Beck, addresses distorted thinking and unrealistic beliefs, particularly in depression.
Some of the common ...

Group Therapy

Group therapy is a sociocultural approach to psychological treatment, where individuals with shared psychological challenges come together under the guidance of a mental health professional. This therapeutic modality offers unique opportunities for individuals to connect, share, and grow within the context of a supportive group. By fostering mutual understanding and collaboration, group therapy can address a range of psychological concerns effectively, often complementing or surpassing the benefits of individual therapy.
Benefits of Group Therapy
Group therapy promotes universality, helping participants realize that others share similar struggles, which can reduce feelings of isolation and shame. For instance, a child dealing with poor social skills may benefit from observing and practicing interpersonal techniques within a structured group setting. Similarly, a woman with postpartum depression might feel less guilt and more connection in a group of others facing the same challenges.
Altruism is another key feature: participants provide support, advice, and empathy to one another, which can enhance feelings of competence and efficacy. Additionally, the group environment fosters interpersonal learning, where individuals receive feedback from peers, enabling them to refine social behaviors and develop healthier interaction patterns. For those with specific needs, such as sexual abusers, group therapy offers a safe space for practicing social skills, modeling openness, and confronting harmful patterns.
Challenges and Considerations
While group therapy has significant advantages, it is not without challenges. Participants may initially feel reluctant to share personal issues with strangers, and confidentiality concerns can arise if members disclose private information outside the group. Personality conflicts and disagreements within the group can also present obstacles. Despite these challenges, effective facilitation ensures a balanced and inclusive environment where everyone benefits from the group dynamic.
Applications and Formats
Group therapy can adopt various forms, including psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, or cognitive approaches. Psycho-educational groups address specific topics, such as coping with a family member&#39;s illness or overcoming bullying, often within school settings. Structured groups have defined goals and activities, while unstructured groups allow members to determine the focus collaboratively. These diverse formats cater to different therapeutic needs, making group therapy an adaptable and powerful tool for psychological growth and healing.

Group therapy is a sociocultural approach to treating psychological disorders, where individuals with similar issues participate in guided sessions led by ...

Operant Conditioning Intervention

Operant conditioning serves as a foundational principle in therapeutic interventions aimed at modifying maladaptive behaviors. Central to this approach is the notion that behaviors, both adaptive and maladaptive, are learned through reinforcement. By analyzing the environmental factors that reinforce problematic behaviors, clinicians can design interventions to weaken these reinforcements and replace maladaptive behaviors with healthier alternatives.
In operant conditioning, behaviors that are reinforced tend to recur, whereas those that are not reinforced eventually diminish or become extinct. For example, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) behaviors, such as compulsive checking rituals, are maintained through negative reinforcement. A compulsive action, like repeatedly checking if a door is locked, alleviates anxiety and prevents anticipated negative outcomes, reinforcing the behavior. Therapy based on operant conditioning addresses this by extinguishing avoidance learning. The individual is gradually exposed to situations without performing the compulsion, demonstrating that the feared outcomes do not occur. Simultaneously, relaxation training and alternative coping mechanisms are introduced to reduce anxiety, breaking the cycle of compulsive reinforcement.
Behavioral therapies based on operant principles are particularly effective for populations with limited cognitive abilities, such as children or adults with developmental disabilities. In treating autism spectrum disorder (ASD), behavioral therapies have proven highly effective. It is used to address self-injurious behaviors, promote communication, and enhance cognitive and language development. Research indicates that intensive early interventions can significantly improve outcomes for children with ASD.
One widely implemented operant conditioning technique is the token economy. This method is commonly used in controlled environments, such as psychiatric hospitals, to encourage positive behaviors. Tokens, which serve as secondary reinforcers, are awarded for desirable actions and can be exchanged for privileges or rewards. For instance, patients may earn tokens for completing daily tasks or engaging in social interactions, which they can later trade for amenities like extra leisure time or preferred activities. The structured reinforcement system of token economies fosters sustained behavioral improvements across diverse clinical settings.

Operant conditioning suggests that behaviors are shaped by their consequences.
Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are reinforced, such as a child ...

Modeling in Therapy

Modeling, a key technique in therapy, uses observational learning to help clients acquire and practice new skills by watching therapists demonstrate desired behaviors. This approach, rooted in Albert Bandura&#39;s concept of vicarious learning, plays a significant role in therapeutic interventions for various psychological conditions, including social anxiety, ADHD, and depression.
Participant Modeling
Participant modeling involves therapists demonstrating calm and effective behaviors in situations that clients find challenging. The therapist first models a constructive approach to the feared object or scenario and then guides the client through the same process step-by-step until the client gains the confidence to manage independently. This technique helps clients confront their fears in a controlled and supportive environment.
Assertion Training
Assertion training incorporates modeling to help individuals express their thoughts and feelings assertively while avoiding extremes of submissiveness and aggressiveness. This training teaches clients to advocate for themselves respectfully and effectively, ensuring that their needs and rights are recognized. The focus is on fostering assertiveness as the balance between passivity and hostility, a skill particularly valuable for those with social anxiety or interpersonal challenges.
Behavioral Rehearsal
Behavioral rehearsal, often integrated with assertion training, employs role-playing exercises to enhance the client&#39;s skills. The therapist assumes the role of a significant figure in the client&#39;s life, such as a supervisor or family member, allowing the client to practice responses in a simulated interaction. As a result, role reversal enables the therapist to model ideal verbal and nonverbal communication, illustrating not just what to say but also how to say it effectively. Feedback and coaching refine the client&#39;s performance, helping them build confidence and competence.
Applications Beyond Therapy
These techniques extend beyond therapy sessions by encouraging clients to apply learned skills in real-life situations. By practicing outside the therapeutic setting, clients consolidate their learning and improve their ability to handle social interactions. Modeling and social skills training are instrumental in managing conditions such as schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD, where improved interpersonal and coping skills can significantly enhance quality of life.
Through structured observation, practice, and application, modeling serves as a powerful tool in helping clients overcome barriers and adopt constructive behaviors.

Modeling allows clients to learn by watching therapists demonstrate positive behaviors, such as maintaining eye contact during conversations.
Similarly, ...

Humanistic Therapy

Humanistic therapies emphasize personal growth, self-understanding, and the fulfillment of human potential. Rooted in the belief that individuals inherently strive toward self-actualization, these approaches encourage clients to explore their feelings and experiences in a supportive, nonjudgmental environment. Humanistic therapies differ from psychodynamic approaches by focusing on conscious experiences, present circumstances, and the potential for self-improvement rather than past conflicts and unconscious drives.
Carl Rogers&#39; client-centered therapy is a cornerstone of humanistic psychotherapy. It aims to foster self-acceptance and unity between the client&#39;s actual self and ideal self. Therapists create a therapeutic environment characterized by three essential elements:
<ol>
	<li>Unconditional Positive Regard: Therapists affirm the inherent worth of clients, offering nonjudgmental acceptance to promote self-acceptance.</li>
	<li>Empathy: By deeply understanding and reflecting on the client&#39;s emotions, therapists help clients feel heard and validated.</li>
	<li>Genuineness: Therapists are authentic and transparent, fostering a genuine connection with the client.</li>
</ol>
Active listening and reflective speech are central techniques that allow clients to identify and articulate their feelings. For example, a therapist might mirror a client&#39;s grief or anger, encouraging deeper emotional exploration.
Gestalt therapy, developed by Fritz Perls, focuses on integrating conflicting aspects of the self to achieve wholeness. Techniques like the two-chair dialogue allow clients to confront and synthesize opposing parts of their personality, fostering authenticity and emotional balance. Gestalt therapy emphasizes the &#34;here and now,&#34; urging clients to take responsibility for their feelings and actions. Techniques such as the two-chair method in Gestalt therapy, where clients alternate speaking from different perspectives to address and resolve internal conflicts, help promote self-awareness and integration.
Existential therapy, exemplified by Viktor Frankl&#39;s logotherapy, explores meaning-making as a response to life&#39;s challenges. Frankl believed that even in dire circumstances, individuals could find purpose and maintain dignity. Existential therapists help clients confront themes like freedom, isolation, and mortality, encouraging personal responsibility and resilience.
Humanistic principles are integral to various contemporary approaches, including motivational interviewing, which leverages empathy and reflective listening to encourage behavior change. Whether addressing mental health conditions or lifestyle modifications, humanistic therapies remain influential in fostering emotional awareness, self-empowerment, and authentic living.

Humanistic therapy focuses on self-healing, conscious thoughts, the present, and self-fulfillment, encouraging individuals to realize their potential and ...

Psychodynamic Therapy

Psychodynamic therapies emphasize the exploration of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences as fundamental contributors to psychological difficulties. These therapies, deeply rooted in Freud&#39;s psychoanalytic theory, aim to uncover and resolve unconscious conflicts, granting individuals insights that promote emotional and behavioral healing. Contemporary psychodynamic approaches have evolved, integrating a broader range of influences and methodologies while still valuing the unconscious mind and the therapeutic relationship.
Freud&#39;s psychoanalysis is the cornerstone of psychodynamic therapies. He proposed that unconscious conflicts, often originating in childhood, manifest as present-day psychological problems. Through techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and interpretation, psychoanalysts endeavor to illuminate these hidden struggles.
Free Association encourages clients to articulate thoughts without censorship, facilitating the emergence of repressed emotions or memories. Freud viewed moments of resistance &#8212; when clients hesitated or avoided certain topics &#8212; as indicators of unresolved conflicts.
Dream Analysis involves interpreting dreams&#39; manifest content (the recalled narrative) to reveal their latent content or hidden unconscious meanings. Freud believed that dreams serve as a disguised outlet for repressed wishes, often rooted in sexual or aggressive instincts.
Interpretation entails uncovering symbolic meanings in clients&#39; words and actions and offering hypotheses about unconscious motivations that drive behaviors.
Freud highlighted the importance of transference, where clients project feelings toward significant figures in their lives onto the therapist. This phenomenon provides a window into relational patterns and unresolved emotions, which therapists can help clients process. Conversely, resistance reflects unconscious defense mechanisms that hinder therapy progress. Psychoanalysts work to address and understand these resistances, aiding clients in confronting difficult truths.
Modern psychodynamic therapies have shifted focus, often prioritizing the conscious mind and current relationships over Freud&#39;s emphasis on sexual conflicts. They explore recurring life patterns, significant past events, and distressing emotions to provide insight. Therapists, influenced by figures like Heinz Kohut, emphasize empathy and healthy therapeutic relationships as a means to foster self-understanding and emotional resilience. Contemporary practices also adapt to practical constraints, favoring weekly sessions over the intensive regimens of Freud&#39;s era.
This evolution reflects an enduring commitment to exploring the depths of the human psyche while embracing contemporary perspectives on mental health.

Psychodynamic therapy explores the unconscious mind, such as repressed memories, conflicts, and early childhood experiences, to understand current ...

Behavior Therapy

Behavior therapy incorporates diverse techniques rooted in classical conditioning principles to address maladaptive behaviors and anxiety disorders. These methods aim to reduce avoidance behaviors, foster adaptive coping mechanisms, and alter associations between stimuli and responses, making them effective in a wide range of therapeutic contexts.
Exposure therapy is a cornerstone of behavioral treatment for anxiety disorders. It involves systematic exposure to feared stimuli, either in real life, through visualization, or via virtual reality, to desensitize the individual. Gradual exposure, beginning with the least anxiety-provoking scenarios and progressing to more challenging ones, is designed to help clients build tolerance.
Systematic desensitization builds upon this by pairing exposure with relaxation techniques. For instance, someone with a fear of public speaking may practice relaxation while initially speaking to a single person and then gradually progressing to larger audiences, reducing anxiety through reciprocal inhibition.
Flooding involves directly confronting the most anxiety-inducing stimuli in a controlled setting to extinguish avoidance behaviors. Unlike graded exposure, flooding does not follow a hierarchical approach. For example, an individual with a phobia of dogs might be guided to interact with a calm and friendly dog immediately, enabling them to experience the absence of feared consequences, which helps diminish their fear response.
Aversive conditioning is employed to deter undesirable behaviors by pairing them with unpleasant experiences. For example, to address overeating, therapists may use aversive stimuli, such as a bitter taste, to create a negative association with the behavior. This method conditions the individual to avoid the maladaptive behavior due to its unpleasant consequences.
Relaxation techniques, including deep breathing and progressive muscle relaxation, are integral to these therapies. They work through reciprocal inhibition, whereby a physiological state incompatible with anxiety, such as relaxation, counteracts the anxious response. By combining relaxation with gradual or direct exposure, individuals can recondition their responses to previously feared stimuli, fostering long-term behavioral change.

In behavior therapy, a therapist employs principles of learning, such as classical and operant conditioning, to help clients change undesirable 
...

Drug Therapy

The advent of drug therapy has profoundly shaped modern mental health care, providing targeted treatments for a range of psychological disorders. Psychotherapeutic drugs, classified into antianxiety, antidepressant, and antipsychotic medications, address symptoms across anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and schizophrenia. While these medications have transformed patient outcomes, they require careful management due to their potential side effects and limitations.
Antianxiety Medications
Antianxiety drugs, commonly known as tranquilizers, include benzodiazepines such as Xanax, Valium, and Librium. These medications alleviate anxiety by binding to neurotransmitter receptors that are hyperactive during periods of distress. Although benzodiazepines act rapidly and are effective for short-term relief, they pose risks of addiction, drowsiness, impaired coordination, and potentially harmful interactions with alcohol and other drugs. Alternatives like buspirone (BuSpar) offer less addictive solutions but may take longer to provide symptomatic relief. Caution is essential in prescribing these medications, particularly for long-term use, due to their addictive potential.
Antidepressant Drugs
Antidepressants regulate mood by influencing brain neurotransmitters, particularly serotonin and norepinephrine. Types of antidepressants such as tricyclics and tetracyclics, named for their molecular structures, have demonstrated efficacy but come with significant side effects such as dizziness, memory issues, and faintness. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, though effective, are less commonly used due to dietary restrictions and risks of high blood pressure. More commonly prescribed are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which target serotonin reabsorption, offering fewer side effects and broad applications for mood, anxiety, and even chronic pain disorders. However, withdrawal from SSRIs requires careful management to avoid severe symptoms.
Mood Stabilizers Medications
Lithium remains a cornerstone treatment for bipolar disorder, effectively managing manic episodes and stabilizing mood. Its therapeutic benefits are tempered by a narrow safety margin, requiring careful blood monitoring to avoid toxicity. Side effects such as weight gain, thyroid issues, and kidney complications are common, highlighting the need for patient adherence and regular medical supervision.
Antipsychotic Medications
Antipsychotics have revolutionized schizophrenia treatment by reducing symptoms such as hallucinations and agitation. Neuroleptics, the most widely used class, modulate dopamine pathways but are associated with severe side effects, including tardive dyskinesia, a condition characterized by involuntary facial and limb movements. Newer atypical antipsychotics, such as Clozaril and Risperdal, also target serotonin and have fewer side effects, but challenges remain in patient adherence and long-term symptom management. Combining medication with psychotherapy and skill-building therapies improves outcomes, emphasizing the importance of holistic care.
Drug therapies, while pivotal in psychiatric treatment, require personalized and cautious administration. Side effects, risk of dependency, and adherence issues necessitate a balanced approach, often integrating pharmacological interventions with psychotherapy for optimal results.

The development of psychotherapeutic drugs revolutionized mental healthcare, offering effective treatments for anxiety, mood disorders, and 
...

Treatment Strategies for Psychological Disorders

Treatment approaches for psychological disorders fall into three main categories: psychological, biological, and sociocultural. Each approach targets different aspects of mental health, requiring varying levels of education and training.
Psychological therapies focus on modifying emotions, thoughts, and behaviors through talking, interpreting, listening, rewarding, challenging, and modeling. Clinical psychologists, counselors, and social workers commonly practice psychotherapy. Clinical psychologists typically hold a Ph.D. or Psy.D., which involves years of graduate education, supervised clinical practice, and a clinical internship. Licensing and certification are two processes through which society regulates psychotherapy practitioners. Specific laws govern the requirements for obtaining a license or certification, ensuring that professionals meet specific educational and training standards. These regulations outline the necessary qualifications and mandate formal examinations to assess the practitioner&#39;s skills and competency before allowing them to practice.
Biological therapies, or biomedical therapies, aim to treat psychological disorders by altering physical body functions, often through medications. This approach views mental health disorders similarly to physical diseases, requiring medical intervention. Practitioners of biological therapies are generally medical doctors (MDs), with psychiatrists specializing in this field. Psychiatrists undergo medical school, residency, and specialized training in psychiatry. While both psychologists and psychiatrists can administer psychotherapy, only psychiatrists can prescribe medication. If medication is necessary, a psychotherapist may refer clients to a psychiatrist for prescriptions.
Sociocultural therapies emphasize the impact of social and cultural factors on mental health. This approach considers the individual&#39;s relationships, societal roles, and cultural influences in developing and treating psychological issues. Practitioners include psychotherapists, social workers, and psychiatric social workers, who are trained to intervene in the context of these social systems. Social workers typically hold a master&#39;s degree in social work (MSW), and psychiatric social workers receive additional training in mental health. Paraprofessionals, individuals without formal mental health qualifications but trained by professionals, can also assist, often bringing personal experience with specific disorders.

Treatment strategies for psychological disorders fall under three broad approaches - psychological, biological, and sociocultural.
The psychological ...

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is a versatile, nonmedical approach aimed at helping individuals address emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal issues to enhance their overall well-being. It can involve one-on-one sessions, couples counseling, or small group discussions with a therapist. The therapeutic process includes various techniques such as open discussion, interpretation of thoughts and behaviors, active listening, positive reinforcement, and role modeling. Psychotherapy aims to support individuals in understanding themselves better, whether or not they have diagnosed mental health conditions.
Insight Therapies
Insight therapies focus on uncovering the psychological motives behind behavior. By exploring unconscious processes, emotions, and past experiences, these therapies aim to help individuals better understand their actions and thought patterns. Psychodynamic therapy, based on Freud&#39;s psychoanalytic principles, delves into unresolved conflicts stemming from childhood. Humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, encouraging clients to explore their potential. Existential therapy addresses questions of meaning, freedom, and responsibility, while group therapy fosters interpersonal learning through shared experiences within a group setting.
Action Therapies
Action therapies, on the other hand, focus on modifying harmful thoughts and behaviors without delving deeply into their origins. Cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT) are the most widely used action therapies. Cognitive therapy helps individuals identify and challenge distorted or irrational thought patterns, while CBT combines this cognitive restructuring with behavioral techniques. The aim is to replace negative thought patterns with healthier, more adaptive ones and to encourage positive behavioral changes. These therapies are highly effective in treating conditions such as depression, anxiety disorders, and phobias.

Psychotherapy is a nonmedical approach designed to help individuals recognize and address emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal problems to improve ...

Elements Crucial for Effective Psychotherapy

Research has highlighted several critical factors that influence the effectiveness of psychotherapy, such as the therapeutic alliance, the therapist, and the client.
The Therapeutic Alliance
The therapeutic alliance refers to the relationship between the therapist and the client. The alliance strengthens when the therapist and the client engage in a nurturing, supportive, trusting, empathetic, and respectful relationship, improving therapeutic outcomes. Therapists must monitor this relationship continuously, as studies suggest that clients who rate the alliance poorly are more likely to discontinue therapy or have negative experiences. Conversely, those who share a strong bond with their therapist are more likely to see successful outcomes.
The Therapist
The effectiveness of psychotherapy can depend significantly on the therapist&#39;s skill set and expertise. Experienced therapists deeply understand psychological issues and are committed to adapting their approach based on ongoing progress. Research also suggests that the compatibility between the therapist&#39;s style and the client&#39;s personality plays a crucial role in therapy success. For example, a more flexible and laid-back therapist may succeed with a client who resists change, while a directive approach may work better for others.
The Client
Another major determinant of therapeutic outcomes is the client&#39;s role in the process. Meta-analyses suggest that the client&#39;s participation is one of the most critical factors in determining success. While clients often seek therapy for life challenges, their strengths, skills, and motivation largely contribute to their progress. Research has consistently shown that therapy&#39;s success depends significantly on the client&#39;s engagement, and clients who fail to participate actively are more likely to experience unsatisfactory results.

Effective psychotherapy depends on three crucial elements&#8212; the therapeutic alliance, the therapist, and the client.
The therapeutic alliance refers ...

Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability (ID) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by deficits in intellectual and adaptive functioning that manifest during the developmental period. This condition encompasses challenges in reasoning, memory, problem-solving, and learning, accompanied by impairments in everyday life skills, such as communication, self-care, and social interactions. Intellectual disability affects approximately 1% of the population in the United States, impacting an estimated 5 million individuals.
Assessment and Diagnosis
Historically, the diagnosis of intellectual disability was heavily reliant on IQ scores, with an IQ below 70 considered a diagnostic threshold. However, recent standards, such as those outlined in the DSM-5, prioritize adaptive functioning over rigid IQ thresholds. Current assessments evaluate impairments across three domains: conceptual, social, and practical skills. Conceptual abilities include literacy, numeracy, and time management, while social skills cover empathy, interpersonal communication, and compliance with social norms. Practical skills pertain to personal care, job responsibilities, and daily routines.
Adaptive functioning is evaluated in the context of the individual&#39;s life circumstances. For example, two individuals with similar IQ scores might differ significantly in functionality &#8212; one might live independently with minimal support, while the other might require institutional care. This shift in diagnostic criteria emphasizes functional capabilities rather than test scores, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of intellectual disability.
Causes and Classifications
The etiology of intellectual disability can be organic or cultural-familial. Organic causes include genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome and Fragile X syndrome, and prenatal exposure to alcohol or toxins,&#160; which result in fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition that results from exposing a developing embryo to alcohol, and intelligence levels can range from below average to levels associated with intellectual disability. Environmental factors, such as malnutrition, lack of stimulation, and inadequate healthcare, often underlie cultural-familial intellectual disability. This type of intellectual disability, with no identifiable physical damage, typically results in milder impairments.
Classifications range from mild to profound, based on the severity of deficits. Individuals with mild ID may achieve partial independence with support, while those with profound ID often remain fully dependent on caregivers due to severe limitations in all adaptive domains.
Holistic Perspectives
While intellectual disability affects cognitive and adaptive skills, it does not diminish the individual&#39;s capacity for forming meaningful relationships and contributing to their community. Understanding and addressing their diverse needs through tailored support and interventions can significantly enhance their quality of life and social integration.

Intellectual disability, previously termed as mental retardation, has been defined by significant cognitive deficits&#8212;which have been established ...

Conduct Disorder

Conduct disorder is a complex mental health diagnosis characterized by a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates societal norms, the rights of others, or age-appropriate rules. The diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder require the presence of at least three problematic behaviors within the past 12 months, with at least one occurring in the past six months. These behaviors are grouped into four categories: aggression toward people and animals; destruction of property; deceitfulness or theft; and serious violations of rules. The severity of symptoms, age of onset, and associated features all play crucial roles in understanding the disorder&#39;s impact and prognosis.
Diagnostic Features and Severity
The behaviors defining conduct disorder range from bullying, physical cruelty, and theft, to truancy and property destruction. Severity is categorized as mild, moderate, or severe, based on the number of symptoms and their impact on others. Childhood-onset conduct disorder, marked by symptoms before age 10, is associated with a poorer prognosis compared to adolescent-onset conduct disorder. Those with the specifier &#34;limited prosocial emotions&#34; &#8212; such as lack of remorse, callousness, or shallow affect &#8212; exhibit a more severe and persistent course.
Associated Factors and Risks
A combination of genetic, environmental, and temperamental factors influences conduct disorder. Risk factors include parental neglect, inconsistent discipline, exposure to violence, and association with delinquent peers. Neurobiological findings, such as reduced autonomic fear responses, and structural differences in brain regions associated with emotional regulation, have been observed but are not diagnostic. Co-occurring conditions, including ADHD, substance use disorders, and mood disorders, are common and can exacerbate the symptoms of conduct disorder.
Developmental Trajectory
Conduct disorder typically emerges during middle childhood or adolescence, often following oppositional defiant disorder. Symptoms evolve with age, beginning with less severe behaviors such as lying and escalating to more severe actions like theft and aggression. While the majority of cases remit by adulthood, childhood-onset conduct disorder is strongly predictive of antisocial personality disorder and other psychosocial difficulties later in life.
Sociocultural and Gender Considerations
The expression of conduct disorder behaviors differs by gender, with boys more likely to exhibit physical aggression and girls more often engaging in relational aggression or truancy. Cultural and environmental contexts, such as systemic oppression or high-crime areas, may influence the prevalence and manifestation of conduct disorder, necessitating careful diagnostic evaluation to avoid bias.
Conduct disorder presents significant challenges for affected individuals, families, and communities. Its association with academic failure, legal issues, and health risks underscores the importance of early intervention and comprehensive treatment approaches tailored to the individual&#39;s developmental and social context.

Conduct disorder involves a repetitive pattern of behavior violating others&#39; rights or societal norms, typically emerging in childhood or 
...

Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders caused by neurological impairments that affect cognitive functions like language and reading, without indicating overall intellectual or developmental challenges. These disabilities differ from global intellectual or developmental disabilities as they are limited to distinct cognitive functions. Common learning disabilities include dysgraphia, dyslexia, and dyscalculia, each of which impacts unique aspects of learning.
<h4>Dyslexia</h4>
Dyslexia is a learning disability characterized by difficulties with reading fluency and comprehension despite normal intelligence. Individuals with dyslexia often struggle to decode and interpret written text. They may require additional time for reading and have difficulty associating letters with their corresponding sounds. Research has shown that dyslexia is independent of general cognitive ability, occurring across a broad spectrum of IQ levels.
<h4>Dysgraphia</h4>
Dysgraphia is marked by difficulty in writing legibly and coherently, making the physical act of writing a significant challenge. This impairment often contrasts with the individual&#39;s overall intellectual potential. Children with dysgraphia may struggle to translate their thoughts into written words and face spatial organization challenges, affecting handwriting consistency. These difficulties often require academic accommodations, such as assistive technologies or alternative assessment methods, to ensure success in educational settings.
<h4>Dyscalculia</h4>
Dyscalculia affects a child&#39;s ability to learn and understand arithmetic. Early signs include difficulty recognizing the quantity of small groups of objects without counting. Other challenges involve memorizing basic math facts, organizing numerical information, and distinguishing between numerical symbols and their verbal equivalents.

Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders caused by neurological impairments that affect cognitive functions like language and reading without ...

Personality Disorders: Dependent and Obsessive-Compulsive

Dependent personality disorder and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder are two separate psychological conditions that influence behavior, relationships, and overall life functioning. Though both involve maladaptive behaviors, their core characteristics and motivations differ significantly.
&#160;Dependent Personality Disorder
Dependent personality disorder is characterized by an excessive reliance on others to manage various aspects of life. Individuals with this disorder often struggle with decision-making, requiring constant reassurance and advice before making even minor choices. Their persistent fear of separation and abandonment leads them to exhibit submissive and clingy behaviors, as they prioritize maintaining relationships over asserting independence.
A key feature of dependent personality disorder is a profound lack of self-confidence, which contributes to feelings of helplessness when alone. Individuals with this disorder tend to perceive others as more competent and powerful while viewing themselves as childlike, weak, and incapable of functioning independently. This reliance on external support can lead them to tolerate mistreatment or remain in unhealthy relationships to avoid being alone.
Furthermore, their reluctance to take the initiative often results in an inability to complete tasks without assistance. They may avoid responsibilities that require self-sufficiency, preferring to defer to others for guidance. As a result, they may struggle in professional and personal settings where autonomy is needed.
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive preoccupation with perfectionism, order, and control, often at the expense of task completion, relationships, and overall well-being. Individuals with this disorder are excessively focused on details, rules, and schedules, hindering productivity as they struggle to overcome minor imperfections. Their rigid adherence to structure and standards often leads to inefficiency, as they prioritize precision over practicality.
A defining feature of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is an intense devotion to work and productivity, often at the expense of leisure activities and personal relationships. These individuals may neglect social interactions and relaxation, believing that time not spent on work or structured tasks is wasted. Their inflexible mindset makes it difficult for them to delegate tasks, as they insist that things be done precisely their way. This insistence on control can strain professional and personal relationships, as they impose strict expectations on themselves and others.
Furthermore, individuals with this disorder tend to exhibit a rigid and stubborn disposition, resisting changes or alternative approaches. Their perfectionistic tendencies extend to financial habits, often manifesting as excessive frugality. They may be reluctant to spend money, even on necessities, due to an ingrained need for control and order in all aspects of life.

Dependent personality disorder is characterized by an excessive reliance on others to meet emotional and physical needs.
Individuals with this disorder ...

Determining Spatial Orientation of Rock Layers with the Brunton Compass

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Most rock units exhibit some form of planar surfaces or linear features. Examples include bedding-, fault-, fracture-, and joint-surfaces, and various forms of foliation and mineral alignment. The spatial orientation of these features form the critical raw data used to constrain models addressing the origin and subsequent deformation of rock units.
Although now over 100 years since its invention and introduction, the Brunton compass (Figure 1) remains a central tool in the modern geologist&#8217;s arsenal of field equipment. It is still the primary tool used to generate field data regarding the geometric orientation of planar rock surfaces or linear rock features. These orientation measurements are referred to as strike and dip, and provide the fundamental data for making geologic maps. Furthermore, the Brunton Compass can also function as a traditional compass for location exercises and triangulation. Finally, it can also serve as a pocket transit for measuring angular elevations.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10086/10086fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. The Brunton compass.

Brunton Compass: Strike and Dip Measurement of Rock Layers

Determinar la orientación espacial de las capas de roca con la brújula Brunton

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Most rock units exhibit some form of planar surfaces or linear features. Examples ...

Using Topographic Maps to Generate Topographic Profiles

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Topographic maps are &#34;plan-view&#34; representations of Earth&#39;s three-dimensional surface. They are a standard type of map-view that provides an overhead, or aerial, perspective.
Among the defining features of a topographic map are the contour lines that indicate locations of constant elevation. The elevation interval between the contour lines is dependent on the level of detail provided by the map and the kind of topography present. For example, regions with significant topographic variation might require contour lines separated by 40-100 ft., whereas generally flat-lying regions with little topographic variation might have more broadly separated 10-20 ft. contours.
To an experienced user of such maps, the patterns made by the topographic lines are representative of various landform patterns, such as ridges, valleys, hills, and plateaus.

Utilizando mapas topográficos para generar perfiles topográficos

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Topographic maps are &#34;plan-view&#34; representations of Earth&#39;s ...

Making a Geologic Cross Section

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Geologic maps were first made and utilized in Europe, in the mid-to-late 18th century. Ever since, they have been an important part of geological investigations all around the world that strive to understand rock distributions on the surface of the earth, in the subsurface, and their modification through time. A modern geologic map is a data-rich representation of rocks and rock-structures in a two-dimensional plan view. The base for most geologic maps is a topographic map, onto which color variations have been placed to represent specific rock units. The boundaries between the rock units are called contacts. In addition to the contact lines, geologic maps contain symbols that represent key features, such as the dip and strike of the rock units, anticlines and synclines, and the traces of fault surfaces.
Although the two-dimensional map-view is useful, one of a geologist&#39;s key tasks is to infer the type and orientation of rocks in the subsurface. This is done using geologic rules, inferences, and projections downward from the surface. The result is a geologic cross section, a view that essentially provides a cutaway image, much like one would see on a canyon wall or in a roadcut.
This hypothetical slice into the earth, providing a third dimension (depth), is the key to a host of geological applications. Cross sections are used to assess temporal models of rock formation through time. In other words, the goal is to recreate a step-by-step sequence of which rocks and structures came first, last, and in between. They&#39;re also used to determine specific modes of deformation - whether rocks have undergone compressional, extensional, or other stresses.
Geologic cross sections help to identify regions of groundwater movement, evaluate potential sites for economic mineral deposits, and locate oil and gas reservoirs.

Hacer una sección geológica

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Geologic maps were first made and utilized in Europe, in the mid-to-late 18th century. ...

Physical Properties Of Minerals I: Crystals and Cleavage

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
The physical properties of minerals comprise various measurable and discernible attributes, including color, streak, magnetic properties, hardness, crystal growth form, and crystal cleavage. Each of these properties are mineral-specific, and they are fundamentally related to a particular mineral&#8217;s chemical make-up and atomic structure.
This experiment examines two properties that stem primarily from symmetric repetition of fundamental, structural atomic groupings, called unit cells, within a crystal lattice, a crystal growth form, and crystal cleavage.
Crystal growth form is the macroscopic expression of atomic-level symmetry, generated by the natural growth process of adding unit cells (the molecular building blocks of minerals) to a growing crystal lattice. Zones of rapid unit-cell-addition become the edges between the planar surfaces, i.e. faces, of the crystal.
It is important to recognize that rocks are aggregates of mineral grains. Most rocks are polymineralic (multiple kinds of mineral grains) but some are effectively monomineralic (composed of a single mineral). Because rocks are combinations of minerals, rocks are not referred to as having crystal form. In some cases, geologists refer to rocks as having a general cleavage, but here the term is simply used to refer to repetitive breaking surfaces and is not a reflection of atomic crystal structure. So, in general, the terms crystal form and crystal cleavage are used in reference to mineral samples and not rock samples.

Mineral Crystals: Unit Cells, Lattices and Cleavage Planes

Propiedades físicas de los minerales I: cristales y escote

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
The physical properties of minerals comprise various measurable and discernible ...

Physical Properties Of Minerals II: Polymineralic Analysis

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
The physical properties of minerals include various measurable and discernible attributes, including color, streak, magnetic properties, hardness, crystal growth form, and crystal cleavage. These properties are mineral-specific, and they are fundamentally related to a particular mineral&#8217;s chemical make-up and atomic structure.
This video examines several physical properties that are useful in field and hand sample mineral identification&#8212; color, luster, streak, hardness, magnetism, and reaction with acid. Unlike crystal form and crystal cleavage, these properties are somewhat more closely linked to mineral chemical composition than to atomic structure, but both do play a role.
It is important to recognize that rocks are aggregates of mineral grains. Most rocks are polymineralic (multiple kinds of mineral grains) but some are effectively monomineralic (composed of a single mineral). Unlike crystal form and cleavage, which are terms reserved for mineral specimens, geologists might on occasion refer to a rock as having a general sort of color, hardness, magnetism, or reaction with acid. In other words, the physical properties looked at here are potentially appropriate for use with rocks as well as with specific minerals.

Physical Properties of Minerals and Mineral Characterization

Propiedades físicas de los minerales II: Análisis Polymineralic

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
The physical properties of minerals include various measurable and discernible ...

Igneous Volcanic Rock

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are the products of cooling and crystallization of magma. Volcanic rocks are a particular variety of igneous rock, forming as a consequence of magma breaching the surface, then cooling and crystallizing in the subaerial environment.&#160;
Magma is liquid rock that typically ranges in temperature from approximately 800 &#176;C to 1,200 &#176;C (Figure 1). Magma itself is produced within the Earth via three primary melting mechanisms, namely the addition of heat, addition of volatiles, and decompression. Each mode of melt generation tends to produce specific types of magma and, therefore, distinct eruptive styles and structures.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10037/10037fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1.&#160;Fresh lava breakout on Kilauea, Hawaii. Lava is the term for magma that is on Earth&#8217;s surface.

Igneous Volcanic Rock Formation: Magma Content, Viscosity and Explosivity

Roca ígnea volcánica

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are the products of cooling and crystallization of magma. Volcanic rocks ...

Igneous Intrusive Rock

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are products of the cooling and crystallization of high temperature liquid rock, called magma. Magmatic temperatures typically range from approximately 800 &#176;C to 1,200 &#176;C. Molten rock is, perhaps luckily for humans, an anomaly on planet Earth. If a random and imaginary drill hole were made in the Earth, it would most likely not reach a region of truly and totally molten material until the outer core, at nearly 2,900 km beneath the surface (Earth&#39;s radius is 6,370 km). Even there, this molten material would predominantly consist of liquid iron, not true silicate rock, and be incapable of ever reaching Earth&#39;s surface.
Volcanic eruptions and igneous rocks do occur though, and they are evidence that there are indeed isolated regions of melting and magma generation within the Earth.

Igneous Intrusive Rock: Formation, Texture and Composition

Roca ígnea intrusiva

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are products of the cooling and crystallization of high temperature ...

An Overview of bGDGT Biomarker Analysis for Paleoclimatology

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Throughout this series of videos, natural samples were extracted and purified in search of organic compounds, called biomarkers, that can relate information on climates and environments of the past. One of the samples analyzed was sediment. Sediments accumulate over geologic time in basins, depressions in the Earth into which sediment flows through the action of fluid (water or air), movement, and gravity. Two main types of basins exist, marine (oceans and seas) and lacustrine (lakes). As one might guess, very different types of life live in these settings, driven in large part by the difference in salinity between them. Over the last few decades, organic geochemists discovered a toolbox of biomarker proxies, or compounds that can be used to describe climate or environment, some of which work in marine environments and some of which work in lacustrine. We turn our attention here to the lacustrine realm and branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (Figure 1).
In this section we focus on analysis of terrestrial paleotemperature using branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetrathers (Figure 1; brGDGTs) and the MBT/CBT proxy. This proxy was initially described by Weijers et al.1&#160;and is based on the distribution of ring and branch structures in brGDGTs. They found that the cyclization of branched tetraethers (CBT) was directly related to soil pH.
CBT = -log ((Ib + IIb) / (I + II))
And that the methylation of branched tetraethers (MBT) was determined by mean annual air temperature (MAAT) and, to a lesser extent, soil pH.
MBT = (I + Ib + Ic) / (I + Ib + Ic) + (II + IIb + IIc) + (III + IIIb + IIIc)
Thus, taken together and calibrated, MBT/CBT relates the distribution of brGDGTs to both soil temperature and pH.
MBT = 0.122 + (0.187 x CBT) + (0.020 x MAAT)
Branched GDGTs are thought to be membrane spanning lipids and their production was initially attributed to anaerobic Acidobacteria bacteria living in soils and peat2-5, but subsequent work suggested they could also be produced in oxic and anoxic lake and marine water columns and sediments6-9. The hypothesis holds that Acidobacteria transform sites of methylation into cyclizations in response to lowering temperature in order to increase unsaturation (cyclization effectively removes two hydrogen atoms) and maintain membrane fluidity (by analogy, saturated fat (butter) is a solid a room temperature while unsaturated fat (olive oil) is a liquid), but branched GDGTs have not yet been identified as the main membrane lipids in Acidobacteria cultures. Thus their exact provenance is unknown.
Calibration of branched GDGTs to environmental variables (temperature, pH, salinity, precipitation, etc.) is a topic of widespread research. Organic geochemistry laboratories all over the world are involved in the task of developing both global1,10&#160;and regional11-13&#160;calibrations between branched GDGTs and (primarily) temperature. Thus, the equations given above are regularly being refined and perfected.
Branched GDGTs are usually extracted from lacustrine sediments, although coastal marine sediments have also been investigated. The extracts undergo a silica gel column to purify the GDGTs from other compounds which may not be LC amenable or that may co-elute with GDGTs chromatographically. The GDGTs come out in the polar fraction that elutes in methanol.
Once the total lipid extract is purified, the extracted and purified sample is run on a high performance liquid chromatograph coupled to a chemical ionization mass spectrometer. The relative concentration of the GDGTs is determined by obtaining the area under the curve for the selected mass ion (m/z; Figure 1) for each of the compounds on computer software designed for just this purpose (such as Agilent Chemstation). These areas are then put into the selected calibration equation in order to arrive at a paleotemperature determination.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10256/10256fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Structures of the branched GDGTs used for calculating temperature via MBT/CBT proxy (used with permission of Dr. Isla Casta&#241;eda, who produced the image). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/10256/10256fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0">
Organic compounds called biomarkers can be used in Earth Science as paleothermometers to relate information on climates and environments of the past.
Living organisms produce these biomarkers, which provide us with information about the environment in which they lived. They can act as a proxy to tell us information about past events, like the Earth&#8217;s temperature millions of years ago.
Terrestrial paleotemperature can be analyzed using biomarkers found in sediment from fresh-water basins. One key class of these biomarkers are branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers, or branched GDGTs.
This video will introduce the area of study, called paleoclimatology, which investigates past changes in fresh-water environments over hundreds of millions of year. This helps elucidate current and future climate and environmental changes.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_1">
Sediments accumulate over geologic time, due to fluid movement and gravity, in sedimentary basins, or low areas in the Earth&#8217;s crust. Sedimentary basins include oceans, which collect marine sediment, or lakes, which collect lacustrine sediment. Marine and lacustrine basins contain different types of organisms, driven in large part by the difference in salinity between them. Thus, marine and lacustrine basins contain different biomarkers.
Branched GDGTs are thought to be membrane-spanning lipids of anaerobic acidobacteria. Research suggests that the producing organisms change membrane properties in response to changing temperature.
This change is caused by the transformation of methylated sites on the branched GDGT&#8217;s to cyclized sites at colder temperatures, thereby enhancing membrane fluidity. This change in structure can then be correlated to temperature through a proxy. Proxies are measureable physical phenomena that are correlated to immeasurable variable.
This proxy relates the number of methylations or MBT, and cyclizations, or CBT, in the biomarker to temperature. An experimentally-derived equation can relate MBT and CBT to the past Mean Annual Air Temperature.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_2">
To study the relationship between branched GDGT biomarkers and soil temperature, lacustrine sediment must be collected, extracted by one of three techniques, purified, and analyzed.
To begin studying the relationship between branched GDGT biomarkers and soil temperature, the lipid molecules are first extracted from lacustrine sediments, using a variety of techniques. Extraction via sonication is the simplest and least expensive method of obtaining the total lipid extract, or TLE, from a sediment sample. For this, an ultrasonic bath is used to agitate the sample in a vial containing organic solvent. A mixture of methanol and dichloromethane is used to extract biomarkers with a wide range of polarities. Another extraction technique utilizes Soxhlet extraction. A Soxhlet extractor enables the reflux, or continuous cycling, of organic solvent from a round-bottom flask upward into a condenser, which is cooled by cold water and returned. The condensed solvent falls into a glass fiber thimble containing the sample. Once full, the chamber siphons the organic solvent back into the round-bottom flask, enabling continuous extraction over time.
This technique is helpful in the extraction of large sediment masses, and the preparation of large volumes of standards for instrument calibration. Finally, accelerated solvent extraction, or ASE, is a trademarked method of extraction that utilizes high temperature and pressure to increase the kinetics of the extraction process. The ASE instrument holds up to 24 individual samples, and allows for precise control of all parameters in the extraction process. Due to its speed and simplicity of use, ASE is commonly used as the standard method of solvent extraction.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_3">
Once the lipid sample is extracted using one of these techniques, it is purified in preparation for analysis. Typically, silica gel column chromatography is used to purify the lipid sample based on its polarity. For this, a small glass column is loaded with a fine powder of silica, called a gel. The column is then saturated with an apolar solvent, typically hexane, and then the sample loaded on the top. The separation of the extract is based on the affinity of the target compound for either the solid phase or the solvent phase.
Polar compounds, in this case branched GDGT&#39;s, are more attracted to the polar silica than the apolar hexane. Thus, the apolar compounds, such as hydrocarbons, the mid-polar compounds, such as ketones and alcohols, and the highly polar compounds, will travel the column at different rates and in response to solvents of increasing polarity.
The eluents are then collected in separate fractions.
The purified GDGT&#39;s are then analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer, or LC-MS. LC-MS first separates the compounds, and then analyzes them based on their mass-to-charge ratio.
This enables the determination of the relative concentration of each type of GDGT using the area under the curve for the selected mass ion. MBT is calculated as the fraction of the group 1 molecules to the total.
CBT is then calculated as a negative log using molecules in groups 1 and 2. MBT and CBT are then plugged into an experimentally-derived equation, in order to arrive at a paleotemperature determination.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_4">
The determination of paleotemperature using biomarker proxies is useful in a range of applications in earth science.
First, paleothermometry enables the determination of the Earth&#39;s temperature over long periods of time. Using various techniques, the temperature of Earth has been estimated as far back as 500 million years. This tells us the envelope of temperature within which different forms of life evolved and informs investigations of the effects of temperature on Earth&#39;s biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere in the past, and by extension, the future.
More recent trends in the Earths temperature can also be quantified against records constructed using paleothermometry. The Earths surface temperature has increased by nearly 1 degree from 1850 to the present with an accentuated warming trend in the last two decades. To understand the anthropogenic impact on global climate, accurate paleoclimate records must be developed and used as context.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_5">
You&#39;ve just watched JoVE&#39;s Overview of Branched Glycerol Dialkyl Glycerol Tetraether Paleothermometry. You should now understand how the branched GDGT biomarkers are used, and the overall technique of extracting and purifying them. The following videos in this series will go into more detail about this complex process.
Thanks for watching!
</div>

Un resumen de bGDGT análisis de biomarcadores para la paleoclimatología

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Throughout this series of videos, natural samples were extracted and ...

An Overview of Alkenone Biomarker Analysis for Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Throughout this series of videos, natural samples were extracted and purified in search of organic compounds, called biomarkers, that can relate information on climates and environments of the past. One of the samples analyzed was sediment. Sediments accumulate over geologic time in basins, depressions in the Earth into which sediment flows through the action of fluid (water or air), movement, and gravity. Two main types of basins exist, marine (oceans and seas) and lacustrine (lakes). As one might guess, very different types of life live in these settings, driven in large part by the difference in salinity between them. Over the last few decades, organic geochemists discovered a toolbox of biomarker proxies, or compounds that can be used to describe climate or environment, some of which work in marine environments and some of which work in lacustrine. We turn our attention here to the marine realm and alkenone paleothermometry using the Uk&#39;37 sea surface temperature proxy.
The most well-established and widely applied open-ocean biomarker sea surface temperature (SST) proxy is Uk&#39;37.
Uk&#39;37 = (C37:2) / (C37:2 + C37:3) (see Herbert1 for a review)
The index is based on the ratio of two polyunsaturated long-chain alkyl ketones, called alkenones, produced by some classes of haptophyte algae2,3. Culture4,5&#160;and core-top sediment6&#160;calibration studies led to the development of the Uk&#39;37 Index as a quantitative SST proxy. Amazingly, the culture-based calibration of Prahl et al.4:
Uk&#39;37 = 0.034(SST) + 0.039,
And the core-top calibration of M&#252;ller et al.6,
Uk&#39;37 = 0.033(SST) + 0.044,
are statistically identical.
Reconstructed Uk&#39;37 temperatures correlate best with mean annual SST for a variety of climate and haptophyte production regimes in the global ocean7. Alkenones are detected in marine sediment cores of early Eocene to modern age8, and in exposed outcrops of uplifted marine sediment9&#160;suggesting they are very stable over geologic time, and thus useful as a paleoclimate tool. Uk&#39;37 has been used to document paleo sea surface temperature changes at decadal10&#160;to orbital11,12&#160;timescales and are therefore very versatile.
In the open ocean, the coccolithophores Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa oceanica are responsible for most alkenone production. It is not yet known why these haptophytes alter the unsaturation ratio of alkenones based on growth temperature. It was initially thought that alkenones were components of haptophyte cell walls and that their unsaturation was adjusted in order to keep the membrane fluid, much like saturated fats are solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fats are fluid. However, experiments aimed at this question found that instead of being associated with the cell membranes, alkenones were associated with energy storage structures inside the cell. Thus, their use inside the cell remains an open question.
Recently, alkenones have been found in lacustrine environments. However, their utility has so far been limited. Different alkenone producers than those in the marine realm dwell in lakes and thus the calibration between water temperature and unsaturation (Uk&#39;37) is different. Moreover, this calibration is different between lakes, making the creation of a &#39;global&#39; calibration unlikely. Unfortunately, the creation of local calibrations is expensive and time consuming and so the future for Uk&#39;37 in lakes is also currently limited.
Alkenones are usually extracted from marine sediments. Very often the same organisms that produce alkenones produce fatty acid methyl esters of those alkenones called alkenoates. These compounds co-elute with the alkenones on a gas chromatograph and complicate their quantification. Therefore, these extracts will often undergo a saponification to remove alkenoates. Because the saponification produces carboxylic acids that are not gas chromatograph amenable, a silica gel column must be performed after the saponification to remove the carboxylic acids from the extract. The alkenones come out in the middle polarity ketone fraction that elutes in dichloromethane while the acids are left on the column. Lastly, in extreme cases, such as in sediments acquired from highly polluted areas, like estuaries near industrial centers, a urea adduction may also be required to remove unknown compounds that coelute with the alkenones on the gas chromatograph.
Once the total lipid extract is purified, the extracted and purified sample is run on a gas chromatograph coupled to a flame ionizing detector. The relative concentration of the two alkenones is determined by obtaining the area under the curve for each of the compounds on computer software designed for just this purpose (such as Agilent Chemstation). These areas are then put into the Uk&#39;37 ratio equation shown above to get a Uk&#39;37 value that ranges between 0 and 1. These Uk&#39;37 values are then mapped to sea surface temperature value using a calibration such as those described above.
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0">
Paleothermometry is the calculation of past temperatures by analysis of specific chemicals in natural samples, like those left behind by prehistoric algae.
Algae are a diverse group of organisms that have been abundant in Earth&#39;s oceans and lakes for millennia. Certain chemical compounds, which are deposited in sediment by ancient algae, act as biomarkers &#8211; organic compounds that can provide researchers with valuable insight into Earth&#8217;s history. In fact, analysis of algal biomarker content in sediment allows researchers to determine the Earth&#8217;s temperature hundreds of millions of years ago.
One such record comes from some species of coccolithophores. These algae produce varying amounts of alkenones, a class of robust biomarkers, based on the temperature of their environment. Alkenone analysis is primarily used to calculate the sea surface temperature of Earth&#39;s oceans eons and eons ago.
This video will illustrate the use of alkenones in paleoclimatology and describe the process of isolating, purifying, and analyzing alkenones to calculate past sea surface temperature.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_1">
As its name implies, &#8220;Alkenone paleothermometry&#8221; is based on the analysis if lipids, known as alkenones Alkenone paleothermometry is based on alkenones; long-chain, unsaturated alkyl ketones that contain 37 carbon atoms and 2 to 4 double bonds. Each double bond is a site of unsaturation. At low sea surface temperatures, alkenone producers generate more unsaturated alkenones than saturated. The ratio of saturation to unsaturation is known as the Alkenone Unsaturation Index.
The alkenones usually evaluated are C37:2 and C37:3, which have 37 carbons and two or three double bonds, respectively. The Unsaturation Index of these alkenones, or the UK&#39;37, is positively related to sea surface temperature. The analytical method know as gas chromatography is generally sensitive enough to separate these alkenones from one another. However, alkenone-producing algae often also generate chemically-similar fatty acid methyl esters, or alkenoates, which cannot be distinguished from alkenones using this technique.&#160;Hydrocarbon contamination from pollution may also further muddy chromatographic analysis. To accurately determine relative alkenone concentration, alkenoates and unknown hydrocarbons must be removed before analysis by the methods of saponification and urea adduction.
Now that the relationship of sediment alkenone ratios to sea surface temperature has been reviewed, let&#39;s look at the techniques for their purification from a total lipid extract and analysis of the unsaturation ratio.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_2">
Once marine sediment has been collected and extracted, the total lipid extract, or TLE, must go through a multistep purification process, and analyzed. First, the extract undergoes saponification to convert alkenoates into carboxylate salts and methanol using a strong base and heat. Other fatty acid esters present in the TLE will be saponified into salts and glycerol.
After cooling the mixture to room temperature, an aqueous salt solution is added to form salts and glycerol. The mixture is then acidified to protonate the carboxylate anions, producing fatty acids. Finally, the alkenones and fatty acids are extracted from the mixture with hexane.
Silica gel chromatography is then performed to remove both apolar compounds and the polar fatty acids produced by saponification. The dried and saponified TLE is dissolved in hexane and then loaded onto a column. Silica retains polar compounds more strongly than apolar ones.
First, apolar compounds are removed with an apolar solvent, like hexane. Next, alkenones are eluted by a moderately polar solvent, such as dichloromethane, leaving the highly polar fatty acids and other unwanted polar compounds on the column.
If the original sediment sample was collected from a highly polluted area, urea adduction is performed to remove any remaining highly branched or cyclic hydrocarbons. The dried mid-polarity fraction is dissolved in a solvent mixture in which the strongly polar urea is minimally soluble, such as DCM and hexane. A concentrated solution of urea in methanol is then added to the TLE, causing urea crystals to precipitate.
Straight-chain molecules such as alkenones fit into the spaces between molecules in the urea crystal lattice, but highly branched and cyclic molecules do not, and are expelled.
Once crystal growth has finished, the urea crystals are dried and then washed with an apolar solvent to remove expelled compounds. Then, the crystals are dissolved in a small amount of water. The alkenones are extracted from the water with an apolar solvent for analysis.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_3">
While all previous purification steps did not differentiate between alkenone species, small differences in boiling point and molecular structure are sufficient for separation on a gas chromatography column. When paired with a flame-ionization detector, relative concentrations of the&#160;alkenones, can be determined.
Molecules are identified on the chromatogram by their retention time, or the time needed for the compound to be exit the column. The retention times of the desired compounds are ascertained with alkenone standards.
The relative concentrations of the alkenones are determined from analysis of the areas under the peaks of interest. The UK&#39;37 value is then calculated from the concentrations of C37:2and C37:3 in the sample. With the sea surface temperature proxy relationship and the UK&#39;37 value, the analyst can solve for sea surface temperature at the time of the sediment deposition.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_4">
Many different facets of Earth&#39;s history can be investigated by analysis of sediment and sedimentary rock.
Biostratigraphy is the study of determining the ages of layers, or strata, of rock by analysis of the fossils present. As there are many sources of sediment, sedimentary rocks from the same time period may have dramatically different compositions around the world. Certain sets of species throughout Earth&#39;s history, such as the ammonites, existed worldwide and underwent rapid evolution. If visually dissimilar rock strata both contain the same species of ammonite, then a temporal correlation between the strata can be drawn. When combined with techniques such as paleothermometry, extensive information about Earth&#39;s history can be determined from fossil records in natural samples.
Many species of foraminifera, or forams, are found in marine sediments worldwide. Forams have calcium carbonate shells and have existed throughout Earth&#39;s oceans for millions of years. Many species&#160;live on the ocean floor, and thus can provide temperature information about deeper parts of the ocean. The magnesium to calcium ratio of forams&#160;corresponds to temperature, as they incorporate more magnesium into their shells in warmer climates. The multitude of species and the abundance of forams makes their fossil record useful for tracking changes in ocean currents throughout Earth&#39;s history and for biostratigraphy.
As tectonic plates diverge, new rock forms between them. Correspondingly, the properties of the rock surrounding a divergent plate boundary provide information about plate movements over time. For instance, changes in Earth&#39;s magnetic field are preserved in some minerals found in fossils, rock, and sediment. The discovery of symmetric changes in magnetism about mid-ocean ridges significantly contributed to the current understanding of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_5">
You&#39;ve just watched JoVE&#39;s Overview of Alkenone Paleothermometry. You should now understand the principles of paleothermometry and the relationship of alkenone ratios in marine sediment to sea surface temperature. The following videos in this series will go into more detail about this complex process.
Thanks for watching!
</div>

Un resumen del análisis de biomarcadores Alkenone para Paleothermometry

Sonication Extraction of Lipid Biomarkers from Sediment

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The material comprising the living &#34;organic&#34; share of any ecosystem (leaves, fungi, bark, tissue; Figure 1) differs fundamentally from the material of the non-living &#34;inorganic&#34; share (rocks and their constituent minerals, oxygen, water, metals). Organic material contains carbon linked to a series of other carbon and hydrogen molecules (Figure 2), which distinguishes it from inorganic material. Carbon&#39;s wide valency range (-4 to +4) allows it to form up to four separate covalent bonds with neighboring atoms, usually C, H, O, N, S, and P. It can also share up to three covalent bonds with a single other atom, such as the triple bond in the often-poisonous cyanide, or nitrile, group. Over the past 4.6 billion years, this flexibility has led to an amazing array of chemical structures, which vary in size, complexity, polarity, shape, and function. The scientific field of organic geochemistry is concerned with the identification and characterization of the whole range of detectable organic compounds, called biomarkers, produced by life on this planet, as well as others, through geologic time.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10055/10055fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Organic material, such as trees, leaves, and moss, are chemically and visually distinct from inorganic material, such as pavement.

Extracción de sonicación de biomarcadores lípidos de sedimento

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The material comprising the living &#34;organic&#34; share of any ecosystem ...

Soxhlet Extraction of Lipid Biomarkers from Sediment

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Every lab needs standards that track the performance, accuracy, and precision of its instruments over time to ensure a measurement made today is the same as a measurement made a year from now (Figure 1). Because standards must test the performance of instruments over a long period of time, large volumes of the standards are often required. Many chemical standards can be purchased from retail scientific companies, like Sigma-Aldrich and Fisher. However, some compounds that occur in nature and that are relevant to paleoclimatic studies have not yet been isolated and purified for purchase. Therefore, these compounds need to be extracted from natural samples, and because of the large volumes of standards required, large volumes of sediment need to be extracted. The Accelerated Solvent Extraction (Dionex) and sonication extractions are not appropriate for the extraction of such large sediment volumes. In these circumstances, a Soxhlet extraction is used.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10096/10096fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Schematic depicting how chemical standard tracks the performance of an instrument through time. The dashed line represents a 1:1 relationship between the accepted and measured (on the instrument) value of a variable. Each star is a weekly measurement of the chemical standard. Green stars represent standards that are accurate. Red stars reflect those that are not accurate indicating that the instrument requires corrective maintenance.

Extracción Soxhlet de biomarcadores lípidos de sedimento

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Every lab needs standards that track the performance, accuracy, and ...

Extraction of Biomarkers from Sediments - Accelerated Solvent Extraction

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The distribution of a group of organic biomarkers called glycerol-dialkyl glycerol-tetraethers (GDGTs), produced by a suite of archaea and bacteria, were found in modern sediments to change in a predictable manner in response to air or water temperature1,2. Therefore, the distribution of these biomarkers in a sequence of sediments of known age can be used to reconstruct the evolution of air and/or water temperature on decadal to millennial timescales (Figure 1). The production of long high-resolution records of past climates, called paleoclimatology, depends on the rapid analysis of hundreds, possibly thousands of samples. Older extraction techniques, such as sonication or Soxhlet, are too slow. However, the newer Accelerated Solvent Extraction technique was designed with efficiency in mind.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10097/10097fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. An example of a paleoclimate record showing changes in sea surface temperature (SST) in the eastern Mediterranean Sea during the past ~27,000 years3. This record comprises ~115 samples and is based on the isoprenoidal GDGT-based TEX86 SST proxy.

Accelerated Solvent Extraction of Total Lipid from Sediments

Extracción de biomarcadores de sedimentos - acelerado de extracción por solvente

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The distribution of a group of organic biomarkers called glycerol-dialkyl ...

Conversion of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters by Saponification for Uk'37 Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The product of an organic solvent extraction, a total lipid extract (TLE), is often a complex mixture of hundreds, if not thousands, of different compounds. The researcher is often only interested in a handful of compounds or, if interested in many, may need to remove unwanted constituents that are&#34;in the way&#34; or co-eluting. For example, the concentrations of individual compounds in a sample are often determined on a gas chromatograph coupled to a flame-ionizing detector (GC-FID), because the relationship between FID response (in pA) and the amount of compound in a sample (e.g., ng/&#181;L) is both linear and sensitive. The GC portion of the instrument separates different compounds in a sample based on their boiling point, chemical structure, and affinity with a solid phase that can change according to application. The result is a chromatogram (Figure 1), showing the separation of different chemical constituents in time, as well as their relative concentration (calculated as the area under the curve). However, sometimes more than one compound elutes off the GC at a time (Figure 1). In this case, sample purification is required before compounds can be confidently quantified. 
&#160;
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10158/10158fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. A chromatogram showing the separation of different chemical constituents over time and their relative concentration (area under the curve). Co-eluting and separated peaks are shown.

Purification of Alkenones via Saponification for Uk&#039;37 Paleothermometry

Conversión de ésteres metílicos de ácidos grasos por saponificación para Uk'Paleothermometry37

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The product of an organic solvent extraction, a total lipid extract (TLE), ...

Purification of a Total Lipid Extract with Column Chromatography

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The product of an organic solvent extraction, a total lipid extract (TLE), is often a complex mixture of hundreds, if not thousands, of different compounds. The researcher is often only interested in a handful of compounds. The compounds of interest may belong to one of several classes of compounds, such as alkanes, ketones, alcohols, or acids (Figure 1), and it may be useful to remove the compound classes to which it does not belong in order to get a clearer view of the compounds you are interested in. For example, a TLE may contain 1,000 compounds, but the Uk&#39;37 sea surface temperature proxy is based on only two compounds (alkenones) and the TEX86 sea surface temperature proxy is based on only four (glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers). It would behoove the researcher to remove as many of the compounds they are not interested in. This makes the instrumental analysis of the compounds of interest (alkenones or GDGTs) less likely to be complicated by other extraneous compounds.
In other cases, an upstream purification technique may have produced compounds you wish to now remove from the sample, such as the production of carboxylic acids during saponification in our previous video. In both of the above cases the purification technique called column chromatography is very useful.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10159/10159fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Geochemically important functional groups. From Killops and Killops1.

Purificación de un extracto lípido Total con cromatografía de columna

Removal of Branched and Cyclic Compounds by Urea Adduction for Uk'37 Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
As mentioned in previous videos, the product of an organic solvent extraction, a total lipid extract (TLE), is often a complex mixture of hundreds, if not thousands, of different compounds. The researcher is often only interested in a handful of compounds. In the case of our two organic paleothermometers (Uk&#39;37 and MBT/CBT), the interest is in only 6 compounds (2 alkenones and 4 isoprenoidal glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers). As discussed in the previous two videos in this series, purification techniques may be applied in order to pare down the number of compounds in an analyzed sample. These techniques may chemically alter the unwanted components (saponification), take advantage of the different compound chemistries (column chromatography), or use the different shapes and sizes of the molecules to include or exclude certain components from the analysis (urea adduction). The atomic structure of different chemicals leads some organic compounds to form long, narrow, straight chains (n-alkanes and alkenones), other organic compounds to form complex cyclic structures, others to form highly-branched structures, and yet others which form both cyclic and branched structures (GDGTs) (Figure 1). The different shapes and sizes of the compounds in a sample can be used to separate them from one another, in much the same way as a coin sorter separates coins of different denominations (sizes).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10160/10160fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Comparison of different chemical structures. Decane, a straight-chained alkane (A; from from http://www.bpc.edu/mathscience/chemistry), cyclohexane, a cyclic alkane (B; from http://www.bpc.edu/mathscience/chemistry), a steroid, a poly-cyclic hydrocarbon (C; from www.wikiwand.com), and 2,2-dimethylbutane, a branched alkane (D; www.wikimedia.com). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/10160/10160fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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