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Research

Design Example: Designing a Residential Plumbing System

The design of residential plumbing systems requires carefully evaluating water demand, flow rates, and pressure dynamics to ensure both efficiency and reliability. The nature of water flow within pipes is defined by its Reynolds number, which classifies flow as either laminar (smooth) or turbulent.
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18086/18086_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 42px;" />
This dimensionless value depends on factors such as water velocity and pipe. Residential plumbing systems are designed to meet specific water demand and flow rate requirements based on occupancy and fixture needs.
Determining the nature of water flow &#8212; laminar or turbulent &#8212; requires calculating the Reynolds number, which depends on variables like pipe diameter and water velocity. In residential settings, flow is often turbulent, leading to higher energy loss due to friction, which impacts system efficiency. Energy losses, or head losses, arise as water moves through pipes. These losses are classified as either major or minor. Major losses from friction along pipe walls are calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18086/18086_Equation_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 42px;" />
The Darcy-Weisbach equation requires a friction factor, which is obtained from the Moody chart. This chart accounts for pipe roughness and flow characteristics, which significantly affect turbulent flow friction levels. Minor losses, in contrast, are caused by fittings, bends, and valves, each of which contributes resistance to flow. Each fitting is assigned a loss coefficient that quantifies its resistance and is factored into the total head loss.
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/18086/18086_Equation_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 48px;" />
By adding major and minor losses, the overall head loss can be determined and managed so as to maintain adequate pressure, avoiding potential leaks or damage. Flow measurement devices like Venturi or orifice meters ensure the plumbing system provides the necessary flow rates. These meters measure flow rates by detecting pressure differences across constrictions in the pipe, confirming that water flow meets design specifications and household needs.

Przykład projektu: Projektowanie instalacji wodno-kanalizacyjnej w budynkach mieszkalnych

The residential plumbing system is designed by assessing the building&#39;s water demand and flow rate needs based on occupancy and fixture requirements.
...

Pipe Flowrate Measurement

In pipe flow measurement, orifice, nozzle, and Venturi meters are commonly used to determine fluid flowrates by constricting the flow area, which increases fluid velocity and reduces pressure. This pressure difference, governed by Bernoulli&#39;s principle and adjusted for real-world conditions, is essential for calculating flowrate. Each meter type is suited to specific applications based on accuracy, efficiency, and compatibility with various flow conditions.
The orifice meter is a simple, cost-effective device consisting of a flat plate with a central hole that creates a measurable pressure drop. This device is popular in applications like water treatment, oil and gas processing, and general industrial use where moderate accuracy is acceptable. However, due to head loss from turbulent flow and area contraction, a discharge coefficient is used to correct the idealized flow equation. The flowrate through an orifice meter is proportional to the square root of the pressure difference, accounting for fluid density, orifice area, and the ratio of the hole diameter to the pipe diameter.
The nozzle meter improves on the orifice meter by using a contoured design that reduces flow separation and turbulence, resulting in a smoother flow and increased measurement accuracy. It is often used for high-velocity flows, such as in steam or gas pipelines, chemical processing, and power plants. With a higher discharge coefficient than the orifice meter, the nozzle meter provides improved precision with less energy loss.
The Venturi meter offers the highest accuracy among the three types. It is ideal for applications requiring minimal head loss and reliable measurements, such as water supply systems, natural gas pipelines, and wastewater management. Its smooth contraction and gradual expansion reduce flow separation, conserving energy and enabling accurate flowrate calculations even in low-pressure systems. The discharge coefficient for a Venturi meter, which depends on factors like the ratio of the throat to pipe diameter and flow characteristics, supports exact flow measurement but requires a more complex installation and is generally more costly.
Each meter type offers unique benefits, from essential flow monitoring to precise flow control, chosen based on the application&#39;s accuracy needs and specific conditions.

Pomiar natężenia przepływu w rurze

Flow measurement devices&#8212;such as orifice, nozzle, and Venturimeters&#8212;operate by narrowing the flow area. This increases fluid velocity and ...

Pipe Flowrate Measurement: Problem Solving

A spray tank system is engineered to uniformly distribute a pest-control liquid across plants by using a pressurized mechanism. The tank, pressurized to 150 kPa, holds the pesticide at a height of 0.80 meters. Liquid flows from the tank through a 1.9 meter pipe with a diameter of 0.015 meters, angled at 0.698 radians, ultimately reaching a 0.007 meter nozzle that sprays the pesticide. Accurate calculation of the system&#39;s flow rate is crucial to ensure uniform application, and this is achieved by first determining the flow velocity within the connecting pipe.
The design requires an understanding of fluid mechanics principles. At the outset, the velocity of the fluid in the tank at Point 1 is zero, with the pressure set to 150 kPa. Point 2, located at the nozzle, is assumed to be open to the atmosphere, with a pressure of zero. The height difference between Points 1 and 2, calculated using the 0.698-radian pipe angle and pipe length, determines the elevation change component in the Bernoulli equation. This height difference is found by multiplying the pipe length by the sine of the inclination angle.
To connect the parameters at Points 1 and 2, a modified Bernoulli equation is used, accounting for energy losses due to friction and the nozzle&#39;s loss coefficient. The equation expresses the pressure, velocity, and elevation terms for both points as follows:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18085/18085_PT_equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
Here, p represents pressure, &#961; the fluid density, V the velocity, g the gravitational acceleration, z1 the height of the pesticide inside the tank, and z2&#160; the nozzle height above the bottom of the tank. With values substituted for these terms, the flow velocity in the pipe at Point 1 is solved.
After calculating the pipe&#39;s flow velocity, the flow rate, Q, is determined by multiplying this velocity by the cross-sectional area A of the pipe:
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18085/18085_PT_equation_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 11px;" />
Where A is:
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/18085/18085_PT_equation_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 25px;" />
This flow rate calculation ensures that the pesticide is delivered at a consistent and effective rate, optimizing pest control application.

Pomiar natężenia przepływu w rurze: rozwiązywanie problemów

Consider a spray tank system designed to evenly apply pest-control liquid to plants.
The system includes a pressurized tank at 150 kPa filled with ...

Single Pipe Systems

In pipe flow analysis, problems are typically categorized into three types &#8212; Type I, Type II, and Type III &#8212; based on the known parameters and the desired outcome. Each type of problem addresses specific engineering requirements using fluid properties, pipe characteristics, and operational conditions.
In a Type I problem, fluid properties (density and viscosity), pipe characteristics (including diameter, length, and surface roughness), and the flow rate or average velocity are known. The objective is calculating the pressure drop or head loss needed to maintain the specified flow rate. For instance, in a heating system circulating hot water at 0.32 liters per second, knowing the system&#39;s fluid and pipe specifications allows engineers to determine the required pressure to achieve steady flow. Type I problems are common in designing HVAC systems, where maintaining consistent flow is essential for effective temperature control.
A Type II problem provides the applied pressure, fluid properties, and pipe details, to calculate the resulting flow rate. This type of analysis is used in applications such as garden irrigation, where engineers need to determine the water flow rate in a sprinkler system operating at a specified pressure, such as 276 kilopascals. Knowing the pipe dimensions and roughness, the flow rate reaching each sprinkler can be calculated to ensure adequate water distribution.
In a Type III problem, the known parameters include the pressure drop and desired flow rate, to determine the optimal pipe diameter to support efficient flow. This scenario is typical in cooling systems or industrial piping design, where engineers must size the pipe to achieve a flow rate of 0.19 liters per second, balancing efficiency with minimal energy loss. Choosing an appropriate pipe diameter in Type III problems ensures the required flow rate while minimizing pressure losses and pump energy demands.
By systematically categorizing pipe flow problems, engineers can streamline analysis and ensure optimal design and performance for fluid transport systems in heating, irrigation, and industrial applications.

Systemy jednorurowe

In pipe flow problems, scenarios are grouped by known information and desired calculation and are typically classified as Type I, II, or III.
In a Type I ...

Minor Losses in Pipes

In pipe systems, minor losses refer to energy losses arising from components such as valves, bends, fittings, expansions, and other features that disrupt the steady flow of fluid. These disturbances cause energy dissipation through turbulence and resistance, which engineers quantify to manage system efficiency effectively.
Valves play a significant role in generating minor losses by obstructing or redirecting the fluid flow. When a valve is closed or partially closed, it restricts the flow path, creating additional resistance and inducing turbulence. The resulting energy dissipation depends on the valve&#39;s geometry, position, and flow path design. To quantify this effect, engineers use a loss coefficient, K, which scales with the square of the fluid velocity V as follows:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18081/18081_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
where:
<ol style="list-style-type: circle;">
	<li>hLminor is the head loss due to the component,</li>
	<li>KL is the loss coefficient specific to the component geometry,</li>
	<li>V is the fluid velocity</li>
	<li>g is the acceleration due to gravity.</li>
</ol>
For ease of calculation, engineers often represent minor losses from fittings and valves as an equivalent length of straight pipe that would produce the same head loss.
At the entry point of a pipe, sharp edges or abrupt changes in flow area can cause the fluid to separate from the wall, creating turbulence and energy dissipation through viscous effects. This entrance loss contributes to the overall energy loss, depending on the pipe geometry and the flow velocity. When fluid exits a pipe, the kinetic energy disperses into the surrounding environment, creating an exit loss characterized by a unity loss coefficient, as all the kinetic energy is lost from the system.
Sudden expansions in the pipe create high-velocity jets that decelerate as they expand, dissipating energy through viscous effects. These expansions lead to additional energy losses as the fluid experiences abrupt pressure and velocity changes. Bends in the pipe also contribute to head loss, primarily due to flow separation and swirling motions induced by centripetal forces as the fluid changes direction. The frictional resistance over the length of the bend adds further to the overall head loss, with the degree of loss depending on the bend angle and radius.
Understanding these minor losses allows engineers to design pipe systems that manage energy dissipation effectively, optimizing flow efficiency and minimizing pressure drops across the system.

Niewielkie ubytki w rurach

Minor losses in pipe systems arise from components like valves, bends, and fittings that disrupt fluid flow, causing energy dissipation through turbulence ...

Multiple Pipe Systems

Multipipe systems consist of complex configurations of interconnected pipes designed to transport fluids efficiently across intricate networks. They are essential in engineering applications requiring precise control over flow distribution, pressure, and head loss. They are categorized into series, parallel, loop, and network configurations, each distinguished by unique flow characteristics and applications.
Series Configuration
In a series configuration, fluid flows sequentially from one pipe segment to the next, maintaining a constant flow rate throughout. This setup means each segment experiences the same flow rate, although head losses accumulate progressively across each section. The total head loss from an entry point A to an exit point B is the cumulative sum of head losses in each pipe, governed by the Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss or similar empirical relationships. This configuration suits applications requiring a consistent flow rate along a fixed path, such as in specific water treatment processes.
Parallel Configuration
Parallel multipipe systems divide fluid flow across multiple paths, enabling a higher overall flow rate and reducing resistance across the network. Here, the total flow rate is the sum of the individual flow rates in each branch. However, a critical feature of parallel systems is that all paths experience the same pressure drop. Consequently, fluid particles in each path encounter identical head losses, regardless of the path taken. This arrangement is effective in systems needing efficient fluid distribution, such as in heating and cooling systems, where multiple paths ensure temperature control across large areas.
Loop and Network Configurations
In loop systems, the flow rate within one pipe is balanced by the combined flow rates of the other connected pipes, enabling fluid redistribution based on demand changes or localized resistance variations, such as in urban water distribution systems. Network configurations represent the most complex setup, involving numerous interconnected pipes with multiple inlets and outlets,such as in oil and gas pipeline networks. This flexibility allows for multiple flow directions, enhancing transport efficiency and adaptability to dynamic system demands.
Applications of Multipipe Systems
Multipipe systems are indispensable in several engineering sectors. Municipal water supply networks often use network configurations to ensure consistent pressure and reliable delivery across urban areas. In deepwater oil and gas pipelines, multipipe systems help manage the challenging pressures and flow conditions of underwater environments. Additionally, industrial cooling systems benefit from the controlled fluid distribution provided by parallel configurations, which improve heat dissipation and maintain optimal temperatures in manufacturing processes.

Systemy wielorurowe

Multiple pipe systems consist of interconnected pipes that regulate fluid flow across complex networks.
They can be arranged in series, parallel, loop, or ...

Major Losses in Pipes

When a fluid flows through a pipe, it experiences energy losses due to frictional resistance along the pipe walls, known as major losses. These energy losses result in a pressure drop, which varies based on the flow conditions &#8212; whether laminar or turbulent &#8212; and the specific physical properties of the fluid and pipe.
Fluid flow can be classified as laminar or turbulent, primarily based on the Reynolds number. This dimensionless number reflects the relative influence of inertial to viscous forces in the fluid. In laminar flow (Re &#60; 2000), the fluid flows in parallel layers, or streamlines, with minimal cross-stream mixing. Here, the pressure drop mostly depends on the fluid&#39;s viscosity and is generally lower. In contrast, turbulent flow (Re &#62; 4000) is characterized by chaotic eddies and swirling motions. In this regime, the pressure drop is influenced not only by viscosity but also by the roughness of the pipe wall, as these irregularities disrupt the flow further, increasing energy losses.
The pressure drop in a pipe depends on several factors: fluid properties, flow velocity, pipe characteristics, and dimensionless numbers.
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is the standard approach for quantifying the pressure drop due to frictional losses in pipe flow:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18080/18080_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
Where:
<ol style="list-style-type: circle;">
	<li>&#916;P is the pressure drop,</li>
	<li>f is the friction factor,</li>
	<li>L is the length of the pipe,</li>
	<li>D is the pipe diameter,</li>
	<li>&#961; is the fluid density,</li>
	<li>v is the flow velocity.</li>
</ol>
The friction factor f is crucial for calculating pressure drops, especially in turbulent flow. It depends on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe. Engineers often refer to the Moody chart, which provides empirical values of friction factors across flow regimes and roughness levels.
The Colebrook equation
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18080/18080_Equation_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
Where:
<ol style="list-style-type: circle;">
	<li>f is the friction factor,</li>
	<li>&#1013;/D is the relative roughness</li>
	<li>Re is the Reynolds number.</li>
</ol>
offers a precise method to calculate f for smooth and moderately rough pipes, but it is implicit and requires iterative solutions. To avoid iteration, approximations like the Haaland equation:
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/18080/18080_Equation_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
Where:
<ol style="list-style-type: circle;">
	<li>f is the friction factor,</li>
	<li>&#1013;/D is the relative roughness</li>
	<li>Re is the Reynolds number.</li>
</ol>
are commonly used in practice, providing reasonably accurate friction factor values without extensive calculation. Understanding these dynamics enables engineers to design pipe systems that manage flow efficiently, compensating for potential pressure losses over time as pipe roughness increases.

Duże ubytki w rurach

Consider &#160;a fluid flowing through a pipe; it encounters frictional resistance, causing energy losses known as major losses, resulting in a pressure ...

Turbulent Flow: Problem Solving

Carbonation is a process used to dissolve carbon dioxide gas in a liquid, commonly used in the production of carbonated beverages. Achieving efficient carbonation requires careful control of temperature, pressure, and flow conditions. By adjusting these parameters, carbonation efficiency can be maximized, producing a higher concentration of CO2&#160;in the liquid.
Temperature is a key factor in CO2 solubility. In this case, the CO2 gas and the liquid are cooled to 20&#176;C. Lower temperatures enhance the solubility of CO2, enabling a greater volume of gas to dissolve within the liquid. At this temperature, the CO2&#160;gas is pressurized to approximately 550 kPa. Elevated pressure increases the partial pressure of CO2&#160;over the liquid, further driving dissolution.
CO2 is pumped through a connecting pipe between two tanks, where the flow characteristics are crucial for maintaining steady carbonation. The high Reynolds number, defined as greater than 4000, indicates that the flow is turbulent rather than laminar. Turbulent flow improves gas-liquid contact by promoting mixing, which enhances CO2&#160;dissolution in the liquid. The Reynolds number (Re) is calculated using the equation:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18079/18079_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
where:
<ol style="list-style-type: circle;">
	<li>&#961; is the density of CO2,</li>
	<li>v is the velocity of flow,</li>
	<li>D is the pipe diameter,</li>
	<li>&#956; is the dynamic viscosity of CO2.</li>
</ol>
The flow rate of CO2&#160;in this system is controlled by the pipe&#39;s cross-sectional area and the velocity of the gas. To maintain turbulent conditions, the flow velocity v is adjusted based on the desired Reynolds number, which allows the required pipe diameter to be calculated.
The Reynolds number equation can be rearranged to determine the pipe diameter for the required turbulent flow. The&#160;dynamic viscosity &#956; of CO2&#160;at 20&#176;C are obtained using physical property tables. The optimal pipe diameter can be calculated by substituting these values along with the target Reynolds number and flow velocity into the equation. This configuration ensures efficient CO2&#160;transport through the system, optimizing the liquid&#39;s carbonation conditions.

Przepływ turbulentny: rozwiązywanie problemów

Consider a liquid that needs to be carbonated. Both the liquid and the carbon dioxide gas are cooled. The temperature is selected as 20 degrees Celsius to ...

Laminar Flow: Problem Solving

Laminar flow occurs when a fluid moves smoothly in parallel layers with minimal mixing and turbulence. In fluid mechanics, ensuring laminar flow within a pipe is essential for precise control of flow characteristics, especially in engineering applications. The key factor in determining whether flow remains laminar is the Reynolds number, a dimensionless quantity that depends on the fluid&#39;s velocity, density, viscosity, and the pipe&#39;s diameter. A Reynolds number of 2100 or lower indicates laminar flow, while higher values lead to turbulence.
For air flowing through a pipe at standard atmospheric conditions and a given mass flow rate, the velocity of the fluid must be controlled to maintain laminar conditions. Since velocity depends on the flow rate and the cross-sectional area of the pipe, the pipe diameter plays a crucial role. By substituting the velocity expression into the Reynolds number formula and solving for the diameter, it is possible to determine the minimum required pipe size.
Using standard values for air density and viscosity at 300 Kelvin, the volumetric flow rate can be computed. This, in turn, allows for the calculation of the necessary pipe diameter. To ensure a Reynolds number of 2100 or lower, the minimum allowable diameter for the pipe is found to be approximately 0.46 meters. This calculation ensures that the flow remains smooth and predictable, avoiding turbulence that could disrupt performance.

Przepływ laminarny: rozwiązywanie problemów

Consider air flowing through the pipe at 300 Kelvin at standard atmospheric pressure, with a mass flowrate of 0.0163 kilograms per second. If the flow is ...

General Characteristics of Pipe Flow II

When fluid enters a pipe, it first passes through the entrance region, where the velocity profile adjusts due to viscous effects. In this region, a boundary layer forms along the pipe walls and grows until it fully occupies the pipe&#39;s cross-section. Once the boundary layer merges, the flow becomes fully developed, with a steady velocity profile that remains consistent along the pipe&#39;s length.
The distance to reach a fully developed flow is called the entrance length and depends on the flow regime (laminar or turbulent) and the Reynolds number. Laminar flow typically has a shorter entrance length due to its smooth, gradual profile development, whereas turbulent flow requires a longer entrance length due to enhanced mixing and chaotic motion.
A pressure difference along the pipe&#39;s length drives fully developed flow in a constant-diameter pipe. In horizontal pipes, this pressure difference overcomes viscous forces, ensuring steady motion. The entrance region has a higher pressure gradient to account for acceleration as the velocity profile evolves. Once fully developed, the pressure gradient stabilizes, reflecting the energy needed to overcome viscosity.
Shear stress behaves differently in laminar and turbulent flows. In laminar flow, shear stress arises from molecular momentum transfer, resulting in smooth, orderly layers. Turbulent flow stems from momentum exchange between more significant, irregularly moving fluid particles, making it a macroscopic effect. These differences influence pressure distribution and flow characteristics.
For inclined pipes, gravity modifies the pressure gradient. Depending on the pipe&#39;s orientation, gravity can assist or resist flow, altering the force balance required for steady motion. The viscosity, pressure, and gravity interplay determine fluid behavior within the pipe.

Ogólna charakterystyka przepływu w rurze II

As fluid enters a pipe, it first flows through an entrance region where the velocity profile adjusts, forming a boundary layer along the walls. This ...

Turbulent Flow

Turbulent flow is characterized by unpredictable fluctuations in velocity and pressure, which result in a chaotic fluid movement distinct from the orderly patterns of laminar flow. While laminar flow is governed by smooth, parallel layers with minimal mixing, turbulent flow exhibits highly irregular, three-dimensional patterns. This behavior arises due to instabilities in the fluid&#39;s velocity profile, and amplifies as the flow velocity increases. Minor disturbances, known as turbulent spots, appear once the flow reaches a critical speed. When the Reynolds number &#8212; a dimensionless quantity expressing the ratio of inertial to viscous forces in a fluid &#8212; exceeds a threshold of around 4,000, these spots coalesce, generating fully developed turbulence.
Structure of Turbulent Flow in Pipes
In pipe systems, turbulent flow comprises three distinct regions: the viscous sublayer, the buffer layer, and the outer layer. The viscous sublayer forms close to the pipe wall, a thin boundary where viscous forces dominate, and the flow behaves similarly to laminar flow. Here, velocity follows a near-linear profile influenced by fluid viscosity, providing a stable region within the otherwise chaotic turbulent flow.
Above the viscous sublayer lies the buffer layer, a transitional zone where viscous and turbulent forces contribute to fluid motion. This region is marked by a logarithmic velocity profile that conforms to the logarithmic law of the wall, representing a balance between viscous and turbulent interactions. Further from the wall, turbulent eddies drive fluid movement in the outer layer, promoting rapid mixing and random motion across the flow.
Engineering Applications of Turbulent Flow
The chaotic nature of turbulent flow makes it advantageous in numerous engineering applications where mixing and energy dissipation are crucial. For instance, wastewater treatment systems rely on turbulent flow to enhance the mixing of chemicals, promoting efficient contaminant removal. In hydraulic engineering, turbulent flow dissipates energy in spillways, preventing structural damage by controlling water velocity. The turbulent mixing process also reduces river sediment buildup, maintaining navigable waterways and protecting aquatic ecosystems.

Przepływ turbulentny

Turbulent flow is a fluid movement marked by chaotic shifts in pressure and velocity.
Unlike laminar flow, turbulent flow displays complex, irregular ...

Laminar Flow

Laminar flow represents a smooth, orderly fluid motion where particles move along parallel paths, resulting in minimal mixing between layers. Streamlined particle paths characterize this flow regime and occur under conditions where viscous forces dominate over inertial forces. The distinction between laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow is primarily determined by the Reynolds number, a dimensionless quantity calculated as:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18076/18076_Equation 1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
where &#961; is the fluid density, v is the flow velocity, D is the pipe diameter, and &#956; is the dynamic viscosity. A Reynolds number below approximately 2100 indicates laminar flow, while values above 4000 denote turbulent flow. Transitional flow occurs between these ranges as the fluid shifts from laminar to turbulent.
Velocity Profile and Entrance Length
In a pipe, fluid initially entering develops a velocity profile over a length known as the entrance length. During this phase, the flow transitions from a uniform profile at the inlet to a fully developed parabolic profile, where the velocity is highest at the center and gradually decreases toward the pipe walls due to viscous forces. The entrance length is a function of the Reynolds number and pipe characteristics, typically shorter in turbulent flow and longer in laminar flow. Once fully developed, the parabolic velocity profile remains stable unless disrupted by changes in pipe geometry, allowing consistent analysis of flow behavior along the pipe&#39;s length.
Energy Loss and Hagen-Poiseuille Law
Laminar flow is advantageous in minimizing energy loss, as the pressure drop along the pipe is dominated by viscous forces rather than turbulence. The relationship between pressure drop and flow rate in a fully developed laminar flow is defined by the Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18076/18076_Equation 2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
where &#916;P is the pressure drop, &#956; is the dynamic viscosity, L is the pipe length, Q is the volumetric flow rate, and R is the pipe radius. This equation shows that the pressure drop in laminar flow is directly proportional to flow rate and fluid viscosity and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the pipe radius, highlighting the significant impact of pipe diameter on energy efficiency.
Applications of Laminar Flow
Laminar flow conditions are essential in applications that require smooth, predictable fluid motion with minimal mixing. Wastewater treatment systems, for example, benefit from laminar flow to avoid excessive energy loss and facilitate controlled fluid handling. In canal designs for irrigation, laminar flow promotes even distribution without turbulent disturbances, enhancing water delivery efficiency. Hydropower systems can also leverage laminar flow for more efficient energy conversion, particularly in sections where consistent, low-energy flow is needed.

Przepływ laminarny

Laminar flow refers to the smooth, orderly motion of fluid particles in which each particle follows parallel paths with minimal mixing between layers.
The ...

General Characteristics of Pipe Flow I

Pipe flow refers to the movement of fluids within fully enclosed conduits, typically cylindrical in shape, such as water pipes or hydraulic hoses. These conduits are designed to withstand high-pressure gradients that drive fluid movement, contrasting with open-channel flows, where gravity is the primary driving force. Rectangular conduits, like air conditioning and heating ducts, generally operate at lower pressures and are less suited for high-pressure applications.
The classification of fluid flow in pipes was pioneered by Osborne Reynolds through his foundational dye injection experiments. Reynolds identified three flow regimes &#8212; laminar, transitional, and turbulent &#8212; based on fluid velocity. At low velocities, the dye maintained a smooth streakline, indicating laminar flow, where fluid particles follow orderly, parallel paths. As velocity increased, the dye began to oscillate, marking the transitional regime, and at higher velocities, it dispersed unpredictably in the turbulent regime, where random, chaotic motion dominates.
These observations led to the development of the Reynolds number, a dimensionless quantity that indicates the balance of inertial and viscous forces in the flow. The Reynolds number is calculated based on fluid velocity, density, viscosity, and pipe diameter and serves as an indicator of flow type: laminar for values below 2100, turbulent for values above 4000, and transitional in the range between. In laminar flow, velocity remains steady over time, while turbulent flow exhibits unsteady, fluctuating velocities with random components perpendicular to the pipe axis. By calculating the Reynolds number, engineers can predict flow behavior in pipe systems, aiding in the design and optimization of pipelines, hydraulic systems, and fluid transport networks across various industries.

Ogólna charakterystyka przepływu w rurze I

Pipe flow describes fluid movement through enclosed, fully-filled conduits, typically cylindrical pipes like water pipes or hydraulic hoses, engineered to ...

Design Example: Creating a Hydraulic Model of a Dam Spillway

Scaled hydraulic models of dam spillways provide a practical way to replicate and study the intricate flow dynamics of these structures. Often built to a 1:15 ratio, these models allow for observing critical water behavior, such as velocity distribution, flow patterns, and energy dissipation.
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18074/18074_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 38px;" />
Through this controlled setup, researchers can closely examine how water flows over the spillway, supporting a detailed analysis of its performance. A fundamental principle behind these models is using Froude number similarity, which preserves the proper balance between gravitational and inertial forces.
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18074/18074_Equation_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 38px;" />
This similarity is essential, as it ensures that free-surface flow characteristics, including wave formation, turbulence, and flow separation, behave as they would in the full-sized structure. By achieving this accurate representation, scaled models provide valuable insights into how water interacts with spillway features, helping to pinpoint areas where the design might benefit from adjustments to enhance safety or flow efficiency.
In the scaled model, adjustments are also applied to discharge rates, flow velocities, and timing to reflect real-world conditions without requiring extensive water volumes or prolonged test durations. The discharge rate, for example, is reduced by the scale factor to maintain manageable flow rates, enabling safe experimentation.
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/18074/18074_Equation_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 36px;" />
Additionally, time is compressed so that events unfolding over an entire day in the full-scale structure can be examined in just a few hours within the model.
<img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/18074/18074_Equation_4.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 48px;" />
This efficient scaling supports rapid testing and analysis of different flow conditions and potential structural responses. Overall, scaled modeling of spillways is crucial for assessing designs, identifying potential vulnerabilities, and confirming that the full-scale structure will perform reliably under various water flow conditions.

Przykład projektu: Tworzenie modelu hydraulicznego przelewu zapory

A hydraulic model of a dam spillway is often created by scaling down the design, typically to a 1:15 ratio, to replicate key flow characteristics such as ...

Correlation of Experimental Data

Dimensional analysis simplifies complex physical problems and guides experimental investigations, but it does not provide complete solutions. It identifies the dimensionless groups that influence a phenomenon, but experimental data is needed to establish the specific relationships and validate theoretical predictions.
For example, a spherical particle moving through a viscous fluid experiences drag. Dimensional analysis shows that the drag force depends on the particle&#39;s diameter, velocity, and the fluid&#39;s viscosity. These variables are grouped into dimensionless terms to form a relationship, but experimental data is needed to determine the exact nature of this relationship.
Researchers measure drag force while varying velocity to correlate the dimensionless groups, such as the Reynolds number. This correlation allows the relationship between drag and velocity to be expressed as a constant. Multiple tests verify this constant, confirming the dependency of drag on velocity.
If drag depends only on diameter, velocity, and viscosity, the relationship should be universal for any spherical particle in any fluid under consistent conditions. Multiple tests with different particles and fluids verify this universality, reducing the need for further experiments, as the derived constant remains valid under the specified conditions.

Korelacja danych doświadczalnych

A key use of dimensional analysis is to efficiently manage, interpret, and correlate experimental data.
Dimensional analysis alone cannot fully solve a ...

Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics

Dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics provide simplified ratios that help analyze fluid behavior without relying on specific units. The Reynolds number (Re), which represents the ratio of inertial to viscous forces, distinguishes between laminar and turbulent flows, making it essential in the design of pipelines and aerodynamic surfaces. The Froude number (Fr), the ratio of inertial to gravitational forces, is particularly useful in predicting wave formation and hydraulic jumps in open-channel flows and coastal engineering.
The Euler number (Eu) indicates the ratio of pressure forces to inertial forces and is used to calculate pressure drops in systems such as pipelines and across valves. The Cauchy number (Ca), representing the ratio of inertial to elastic forces, is critical in compressible fluid flow analysis and the study of shockwaves. The Mach number (Ma) compares the flow speed to the speed of sound, making it crucial for studies in supersonic flight and aeroelasticity.
The Strouhal number (St), which compares oscillatory frequency to inertial forces, finds applications in resonance studies, particularly vortex shedding around structures like bridge piers. Lastly, the Weber number (We), showing the ratio of inertial to surface tension forces, is vital in analyzing droplet formation, spray dynamics, inkjet printing, and fuel atomization processes. These groups enable the comparison of fluid behaviors across different scales and systems, supporting a broad range of fluid dynamics applications.

Grupy bezwymiarowe w mechanice płynów

The dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics are ratios of physical quantities used to describe and analyze fluid behavior independently of units of ...

Typical Model Studies

Fluid mechanics model studies often utilize scaled-down systems to predict fluid behavior in full-scale environments, such as river flows, dam spillways, and structures interacting with open surfaces. Maintaining Froude number similarity in river models is crucial, as it replicates surface flow features like wave patterns and velocities.
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18073/18073_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 48px;" />
Practical constraints, however, can introduce geometric distortions, impacting how accurately these models represent the real system. Adjustments, such as increased model roughness, help bridge this gap, aligning flow behaviors between the model and the actual river environment.
For hydraulic structures like spillways, the focus shifts to achieving high Reynolds numbers to maintain dynamic similarity. This approach emphasizes balancing inertial and gravitational forces to replicate the prototype&#39;s behavior closely.
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18073/18073_Equation_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 45px;" />
Larger models are generally preferred, as they capture critical force interactions more effectively in full-scale designs. Although exact similarity across all scales may not be feasible due to physical and financial limitations, these larger models still allow close approximations of essential conditions.
Verification tests and prototype comparisons are key for refining model accuracy. Adjusting variables and calibrating outcomes ensure that the model reliably mirrors actual fluid flow behaviors. This predictive capability supports planning and design adaptations, making these models indispensable tools for assessing performance before moving to full-scale implementation.

Typowe badania modelowe

Typical model studies analyze scaled-down systems to predict fluid behavior, focusing on interactions with free surfaces and flow around immersed bodies.
...

Modeling and Similitude

Scaled modeling is a fundamental technique in engineering, enabling the study of large and complex systems by creating smaller, manageable replicas that recreate critical characteristics of the original. In hydrology and civil infrastructure, for example, scaled models of dams help analyze water flow, turbulence, and pressure. This method allows for accurate predictions of real-world behavior within a controlled environment, significantly reducing the cost and time involved in full-scale testing, which is often impractical. These models provide valuable insights into system performance under various conditions by ensuring that essential design elements match.
For the model to yield valid insights, it must maintain similitude, meaning the replica accurately reflects the prototype&#39;s behavior through geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity. Geometric similarity ensures the scaled model retains the same proportional dimensions as the actual structure, while kinematic similarity requires that motion characteristics match between model and prototype. Dynamic similarity further demands that forces acting within the model accurately replicate those in the real system, accounting for any scaling effects.
In fluid dynamics, the Froude number is a key dimensionless parameter that matches scaled models to their full-sized counterparts, especially for applications like ship design. The Froude number is defined as:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18072/18072_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 60px;" />
where V represents velocity, g is the gravitational acceleration, and L is a characteristic length, often the ship&#39;s length. By equating the Froude numbers for both the model and the full-scale ships, the gravitational and inertial forces align, allowing the scaled model to accurately predict behaviors such as maneuverability, stability, and wave formation.

Modelowanie i podobieństwo

A scaled model of a dam is tested in a controlled environment to observe how it will manage water flow, turbulence, and pressure.
This setup predicts the ...

Determination of Pi Terms

The Buckingham Pi theorem is a valuable method in dimensional analysis, reducing complex relationships between variables into dimensionless terms. Relevant variables in analyzing the lift force on an airplane wing include lift force, air density, wing area, aircraft velocity, and air viscosity. Expressing each variable in terms of fundamental dimensions &#8212; mass, length, and time &#8212; provides a consistent foundation for constructing these dimensionless terms.
The theorem indicates that the number of Pi terms equals the total variables minus the number of fundamental dimensions. In this example, five variables and three dimensions result in two Pi terms. Air density, velocity, and wing area are selected as repeating variables, as they independently cover all dimensions. These repeating variables combine with lift force and viscosity to form dimensionless Pi terms.
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18069/18069_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 100px;" />
The first Pi term expresses the efficiency of lift generation, representing how lift depends on density, velocity, and area. The second Pi term accounts for the relative impact of viscosity, revealing how viscous forces interact with the wing in relation to inertia.
Each Pi term is verified as dimensionless, allowing complex aerodynamic behavior to be represented in simplified expressions. This approach enables the prediction and optimization of lift under various conditions, capturing the essential dynamics without needing to examine each factor individually.

Określanie warunków liczby Pi

To determine Pi terms using the Buckingham Pi theorem, consider the example of analyzing lift force on an airplane wing.
Relevant variables here include ...

The Buckingham Pi Theorem

The Buckingham Pi theorem provides a structured method to simplify fluid dynamics problems by reducing complex systems of variables to dimensionless terms.
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18068/18068_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 34px;" />
In analyzing flow through a pipe, variables that define the system include the pipe&#39;s diameter, the fluid&#39;s velocity, its density, and viscosity. These can be combined into a single dimensionless term, the Reynolds number (Re), which captures their essential relationship.
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18068/18068_Equation_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 38px;" />
The first step in applying the Buckingham Pi theorem is identifying the fundamental dimensions of each variable. In fluid mechanics, these are typically mass, length, and time. Here, the diameter represents length, velocity combines length and time, density encompasses mass and volume, and viscosity incorporates mass, length, and time.
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/18068/18068_Equation_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 140px;" />
The theorem suggests that the number of independent dimensionless groups, known as Pi terms, is the difference in the number of variables k and the number of fundamental dimensions r. Only one dimensionless term is needed with four variables and three dimensions, simplifying analysis.
<img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/18068/18068_Equation_4.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 32px;" />
This single term, the Reynolds number, compares inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid. Establishing this ratio reveals whether the flow is likely to be smooth and orderly, known as laminar flow, or chaotic and irregular, known as turbulent flow. Lower values indicate laminar flow, where viscous forces dominate, and the fluid moves in parallel layers. Higher values reflect turbulent flow, where inertial forces lead to chaotic motion. The Buckingham Pi theorem&#39;s application in this context reduces complex interactions to a single term, making it easier to generalize flow behavior under varying conditions.

Twierdzenie Buckinghama o liczbie Pi

Consider the flow through a pipe, where key variables include the pipe&#39;s diameter D, fluid velocity V, density &#961;, and viscosity &#956;.
To ...

Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is a valuable technique in fluid mechanics for simplifying complex problems by reducing them into dimensionless groups. These groups capture the essential relationships between the variables involved, allowing researchers and engineers to analyze fluid flow without dealing with each variable individually. This approach reduces the number of independent variables, allowing for easier analysis and better understanding of physical phenomena.
In fluid mechanics, dimensional analysis is used to understand the behavior of fluids in systems such as pipelines, channels, and other structures common in civil engineering. Consider the example of fluid flow through a long, smooth-walled, horizontal circular pipe, which is typical in the design of water distribution systems or sewage networks. The pressure drop per unit length along the pipe depends on variables such as pipe diameter, fluid density, fluid velocity, and viscosity. According to dimensional analysis, the pressure drop can be expressed as a function of these variables:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18067/18067_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 12px;" />
This formulation involves five independent variables, which can complicate the analysis. To simplify this, we can use dimensional analysis to reduce the number of variables into two dimensionless groups, thus streamlining the problem. Two important dimensionless groups that emerge from this analysis are the Reynolds number, which characterizes the flow regime, and the friction factor, which correlates with the pressure drop.
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18067/18067_Equation_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
Engineers use the dimensionless groups to generate a universal curve that applies to any smooth-walled pipe and incompressible Newtonian fluid. This curve would allow them to predict the pressure drop for different pipe sizes and fluids without performing numerous experiments for each possible combination.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18067/18067_PT_Figure.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 250px;" />
This approach minimizes the time and cost required for experimentation and allows for more straightforward design decisions. Whether designing water distribution networks or analyzing pressure losses in irrigation systems, dimensional analysis is critical for any civil engineer.

Analiza wymiarowa

Dimensional analysis helps simplify fluid flow problems by using dimensionless groups, reducing complex variables into simpler terms that are easier to ...

Navier&#8211;Stokes Equations

For incompressible Newtonian fluids, where density remains constant, stresses show a linear relationship with the deformation rate, defined by normal and shear stresses. Normal stresses depend on the pressure exerted on the fluid and the rate of deformation in specific directions, which determines how fluid flows under varying pressures. Shear stresses, on the other hand, act tangentially across fluid layers. They explain how adjacent fluid layers slide relative to one another, connecting tangential stress to velocity differences between layers. Normal and shear stresses define the internal forces within a fluid that influence its movement.
The Navier-Stokes equations are derived by incorporating these stress relationships into differential equations of motion.
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18062/18062_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 106px;" />
These equations balance inertial, pressure, and gravitational forces in a viscous fluid and are fundamental to predicting fluid behavior under various conditions. The inertia term in the Navier-Stokes equations accounts for fluid acceleration, representing the fluid&#39;s resistance to changes in velocity. This term is critical in capturing the momentum conservation of a moving fluid, as it demonstrates how fluids resist sudden shifts in speed or direction.
The pressure gradient term within the Navier-Stokes equations drives fluid movement by creating a net force from areas of high pressure to low pressure. Meanwhile, the viscous terms represent internal friction arising from molecular interactions within the fluid. Depending on the velocity gradients present, these viscous forces act to slow down the fluid movement.
Each directional Navier-Stokes equation captures internal forces like viscous stress and external forces like gravity. These equations allow for predicting fluid motion in various conditions, from simple to complex flows. For steady or laminar flow scenarios, where flow is smooth and orderly, the equations become more manageable, enabling more straightforward analysis. This simplification is useful in controlled scenarios like boundary layer flow, where flow near a surface has a structured layer, and in Couette flow, describing fluid between two parallel surfaces moving at different velocities.

Równania Naviera-Stokesa

In fluid motion under viscous conditions, shear stress is directly proportional to fluid deformation. In incompressible Newtonian fluids, this stress ...

Plane Potential Flows

Plane potential flows simplify fluid motion by assuming the fluid to be irrotational and incompressible. These characteristics allow these flows to be described by a velocity potential function, &#981;, representing the flow speed in a given direction, and a stream function, &#968;, that visualizes the flow path, both governed by Laplace&#39;s equation. These parameters help in estimating flow patterns, velocity distributions, and pressure fields around various hydraulic structures.
Uniform Flow
Uniform flow represents the simplest form of potential flow, with fluid moving in a straight line at a constant velocity. Streamlines are straight, parallel, and evenly spaced, clearly visualizing flow across channels or pipes with constant velocity. This flow type is essential in designing canals, pipelines and drainage systems, where the assumption of constant velocity aids in flow rate estimation and hydraulic design.
Source and Sink Flows
Source and sink flows describe radially symmetric flows originating from or converging to a point. In a source flow, fluid moves radially outward from a central point, while in a sink flow, it converges inward. These flows are modeled using a flow rate parameter to represent the strength of the source or sink. This model is widely used in groundwater hydrology, where source flows represent groundwater recharge, such as that from an injection well, and sink flows represent groundwater extraction in a pumping well.&#160; represent groundwater extraction from a pumping well., and sink flows simulate groundwater recharge .
Vortex Flow
Vortex flow involves fluid circulating a central point and appears in two forms: free and forced. In a free vortex, particles move in circular paths around a center point without external force, creating a whirlpool effect often observed in natural bodies of water. This model is used to design spillways and drainage systems that manage spiraling water flow to prevent clogging or turbulence. In a forced vortex, an external force drives the fluid&#39;s rotation, creating a scenario where the fluid rotates as a rigid body. Forced vortices are used in sedimentation tanks and certain hydraulic devices where uniform rotation aids in sediment separation and fluid mixing.
Flow Nets
In flow nets, streamlines represent the fluid flow path, while equipotential lines mark points of equal hydraulic potential. These lines intersect perpendicularly, creating a grid pattern that aids in identifying pressure distributions and potential seepage paths around structures. Flow nets are constructed to assess seepage in soil or porous media. Seepage rates are estimated by carefully analyzing the spacing and orientation of these lines and identifying potential areas of erosion or structural weakness.

Płaskie przepływy potencjału

Plane potential flows simplify fluid motion by assuming irrotational and incompressible flow, governed by a velocity potential function and a stream ...

Steady, Laminar Flow Between Parallel Plates

Understanding steady, laminar flow between parallel plates is essential for analyzing and designing flow in narrow rectangular channels, commonly found in various water conveyance and drainage systems. The Navier-Stokes equations govern fluid motion and are generally challenging to solve due to their nonlinearity. However, simplifications are possible in certain cases, like the steady laminar flow between parallel plates. For this scenario, we assume steady, incompressible, laminar flow.
Considering two horizontal plates aligned along the x-axis and spaced a distance &#39;2h&#39; apart, with the y-axis perpendicular to the plates, fluid motion is assumed to be parallel. Here, the continuity equation indicates no change in velocity along the x-axis, and the Navier-Stokes equations reduce as follows:
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/18063/18063_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
The equations in the y and z directions show no pressure gradient along these axes, indicating that pressure varies hydrostatically in the y-direction, allowing integration to yield:
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/18063/18063_Equation_2.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 12px;" />
For parallel plates with a pressure gradient along the x-axis, the equation simplifies:
<img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/18063/18063_Equation_3.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
By integrating twice and applying boundary conditions (u = 0 at y = +h and y = -h), we obtain:
<img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/18063/18063_Equation_4.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 30px;" />
This expression reveals that the velocity profile across the gap between the plates is parabolic, with maximum velocity at y = 0, midway between the plates. The volumetric flow rate through a unit width of the plates is obtained by integrating the velocity profile across the gap.
Understanding laminar flow between parallel plates has practical applications in groundwater flow, wastewater treatment, and lubrication. For instance, this model can approximate flow in soil layers, where water moves between soil particles like flow between plates. Knowing the flow rate and velocity distribution helps engineers design efficient drainage systems and predict groundwater movement.

Stały, laminarny przepływ między równoległymi płytami

Steady, laminar flow between two parallel plates describes fluid movement in a narrow, confined channel, often used to model simple fluid systems.
For ...

Determining Spatial Orientation of Rock Layers with the Brunton Compass

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Most rock units exhibit some form of planar surfaces or linear features. Examples include bedding-, fault-, fracture-, and joint-surfaces, and various forms of foliation and mineral alignment. The spatial orientation of these features form the critical raw data used to constrain models addressing the origin and subsequent deformation of rock units.
Although now over 100 years since its invention and introduction, the Brunton compass (Figure 1) remains a central tool in the modern geologist&#8217;s arsenal of field equipment. It is still the primary tool used to generate field data regarding the geometric orientation of planar rock surfaces or linear rock features. These orientation measurements are referred to as strike and dip, and provide the fundamental data for making geologic maps. Furthermore, the Brunton Compass can also function as a traditional compass for location exercises and triangulation. Finally, it can also serve as a pocket transit for measuring angular elevations.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10086/10086fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. The Brunton compass.

Brunton Compass: Strike and Dip Measurement of Rock Layers

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Most rock units exhibit some form of planar surfaces or linear features. Examples ...

Using Topographic Maps to Generate Topographic Profiles

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Topographic maps are &#34;plan-view&#34; representations of Earth&#39;s three-dimensional surface. They are a standard type of map-view that provides an overhead, or aerial, perspective.
Among the defining features of a topographic map are the contour lines that indicate locations of constant elevation. The elevation interval between the contour lines is dependent on the level of detail provided by the map and the kind of topography present. For example, regions with significant topographic variation might require contour lines separated by 40-100 ft., whereas generally flat-lying regions with little topographic variation might have more broadly separated 10-20 ft. contours.
To an experienced user of such maps, the patterns made by the topographic lines are representative of various landform patterns, such as ridges, valleys, hills, and plateaus.

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Topographic maps are &#34;plan-view&#34; representations of Earth&#39;s ...

Making a Geologic Cross Section

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Geologic maps were first made and utilized in Europe, in the mid-to-late 18th century. Ever since, they have been an important part of geological investigations all around the world that strive to understand rock distributions on the surface of the earth, in the subsurface, and their modification through time. A modern geologic map is a data-rich representation of rocks and rock-structures in a two-dimensional plan view. The base for most geologic maps is a topographic map, onto which color variations have been placed to represent specific rock units. The boundaries between the rock units are called contacts. In addition to the contact lines, geologic maps contain symbols that represent key features, such as the dip and strike of the rock units, anticlines and synclines, and the traces of fault surfaces.
Although the two-dimensional map-view is useful, one of a geologist&#39;s key tasks is to infer the type and orientation of rocks in the subsurface. This is done using geologic rules, inferences, and projections downward from the surface. The result is a geologic cross section, a view that essentially provides a cutaway image, much like one would see on a canyon wall or in a roadcut.
This hypothetical slice into the earth, providing a third dimension (depth), is the key to a host of geological applications. Cross sections are used to assess temporal models of rock formation through time. In other words, the goal is to recreate a step-by-step sequence of which rocks and structures came first, last, and in between. They&#39;re also used to determine specific modes of deformation - whether rocks have undergone compressional, extensional, or other stresses.
Geologic cross sections help to identify regions of groundwater movement, evaluate potential sites for economic mineral deposits, and locate oil and gas reservoirs.

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Geologic maps were first made and utilized in Europe, in the mid-to-late 18th century. ...

Physical Properties Of Minerals I: Crystals and Cleavage

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
The physical properties of minerals comprise various measurable and discernible attributes, including color, streak, magnetic properties, hardness, crystal growth form, and crystal cleavage. Each of these properties are mineral-specific, and they are fundamentally related to a particular mineral&#8217;s chemical make-up and atomic structure.
This experiment examines two properties that stem primarily from symmetric repetition of fundamental, structural atomic groupings, called unit cells, within a crystal lattice, a crystal growth form, and crystal cleavage.
Crystal growth form is the macroscopic expression of atomic-level symmetry, generated by the natural growth process of adding unit cells (the molecular building blocks of minerals) to a growing crystal lattice. Zones of rapid unit-cell-addition become the edges between the planar surfaces, i.e. faces, of the crystal.
It is important to recognize that rocks are aggregates of mineral grains. Most rocks are polymineralic (multiple kinds of mineral grains) but some are effectively monomineralic (composed of a single mineral). Because rocks are combinations of minerals, rocks are not referred to as having crystal form. In some cases, geologists refer to rocks as having a general cleavage, but here the term is simply used to refer to repetitive breaking surfaces and is not a reflection of atomic crystal structure. So, in general, the terms crystal form and crystal cleavage are used in reference to mineral samples and not rock samples.

Mineral Crystals: Unit Cells, Lattices and Cleavage Planes

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
The physical properties of minerals comprise various measurable and discernible ...

Physical Properties Of Minerals II: Polymineralic Analysis

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
The physical properties of minerals include various measurable and discernible attributes, including color, streak, magnetic properties, hardness, crystal growth form, and crystal cleavage. These properties are mineral-specific, and they are fundamentally related to a particular mineral&#8217;s chemical make-up and atomic structure.
This video examines several physical properties that are useful in field and hand sample mineral identification&#8212; color, luster, streak, hardness, magnetism, and reaction with acid. Unlike crystal form and crystal cleavage, these properties are somewhat more closely linked to mineral chemical composition than to atomic structure, but both do play a role.
It is important to recognize that rocks are aggregates of mineral grains. Most rocks are polymineralic (multiple kinds of mineral grains) but some are effectively monomineralic (composed of a single mineral). Unlike crystal form and cleavage, which are terms reserved for mineral specimens, geologists might on occasion refer to a rock as having a general sort of color, hardness, magnetism, or reaction with acid. In other words, the physical properties looked at here are potentially appropriate for use with rocks as well as with specific minerals.

Physical Properties of Minerals and Mineral Characterization

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
The physical properties of minerals include various measurable and discernible ...

Igneous Volcanic Rock

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are the products of cooling and crystallization of magma. Volcanic rocks are a particular variety of igneous rock, forming as a consequence of magma breaching the surface, then cooling and crystallizing in the subaerial environment.&#160;
Magma is liquid rock that typically ranges in temperature from approximately 800 &#176;C to 1,200 &#176;C (Figure 1). Magma itself is produced within the Earth via three primary melting mechanisms, namely the addition of heat, addition of volatiles, and decompression. Each mode of melt generation tends to produce specific types of magma and, therefore, distinct eruptive styles and structures.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10037/10037fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1.&#160;Fresh lava breakout on Kilauea, Hawaii. Lava is the term for magma that is on Earth&#8217;s surface.

Igneous Volcanic Rock Formation: Magma Content, Viscosity and Explosivity

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are the products of cooling and crystallization of magma. Volcanic rocks ...

Igneous Intrusive Rock

Source: Laboratory of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Alan_Lester">Alan Lester</a> - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are products of the cooling and crystallization of high temperature liquid rock, called magma. Magmatic temperatures typically range from approximately 800 &#176;C to 1,200 &#176;C. Molten rock is, perhaps luckily for humans, an anomaly on planet Earth. If a random and imaginary drill hole were made in the Earth, it would most likely not reach a region of truly and totally molten material until the outer core, at nearly 2,900 km beneath the surface (Earth&#39;s radius is 6,370 km). Even there, this molten material would predominantly consist of liquid iron, not true silicate rock, and be incapable of ever reaching Earth&#39;s surface.
Volcanic eruptions and igneous rocks do occur though, and they are evidence that there are indeed isolated regions of melting and magma generation within the Earth.

Igneous Intrusive Rock: Formation, Texture and Composition

Source: Laboratory of Alan Lester - University of Colorado Boulder
Igneous rocks are products of the cooling and crystallization of high temperature ...

An Overview of bGDGT Biomarker Analysis for Paleoclimatology

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Throughout this series of videos, natural samples were extracted and purified in search of organic compounds, called biomarkers, that can relate information on climates and environments of the past. One of the samples analyzed was sediment. Sediments accumulate over geologic time in basins, depressions in the Earth into which sediment flows through the action of fluid (water or air), movement, and gravity. Two main types of basins exist, marine (oceans and seas) and lacustrine (lakes). As one might guess, very different types of life live in these settings, driven in large part by the difference in salinity between them. Over the last few decades, organic geochemists discovered a toolbox of biomarker proxies, or compounds that can be used to describe climate or environment, some of which work in marine environments and some of which work in lacustrine. We turn our attention here to the lacustrine realm and branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (Figure 1).
In this section we focus on analysis of terrestrial paleotemperature using branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetrathers (Figure 1; brGDGTs) and the MBT/CBT proxy. This proxy was initially described by Weijers et al.1&#160;and is based on the distribution of ring and branch structures in brGDGTs. They found that the cyclization of branched tetraethers (CBT) was directly related to soil pH.
CBT = -log ((Ib + IIb) / (I + II))
And that the methylation of branched tetraethers (MBT) was determined by mean annual air temperature (MAAT) and, to a lesser extent, soil pH.
MBT = (I + Ib + Ic) / (I + Ib + Ic) + (II + IIb + IIc) + (III + IIIb + IIIc)
Thus, taken together and calibrated, MBT/CBT relates the distribution of brGDGTs to both soil temperature and pH.
MBT = 0.122 + (0.187 x CBT) + (0.020 x MAAT)
Branched GDGTs are thought to be membrane spanning lipids and their production was initially attributed to anaerobic Acidobacteria bacteria living in soils and peat2-5, but subsequent work suggested they could also be produced in oxic and anoxic lake and marine water columns and sediments6-9. The hypothesis holds that Acidobacteria transform sites of methylation into cyclizations in response to lowering temperature in order to increase unsaturation (cyclization effectively removes two hydrogen atoms) and maintain membrane fluidity (by analogy, saturated fat (butter) is a solid a room temperature while unsaturated fat (olive oil) is a liquid), but branched GDGTs have not yet been identified as the main membrane lipids in Acidobacteria cultures. Thus their exact provenance is unknown.
Calibration of branched GDGTs to environmental variables (temperature, pH, salinity, precipitation, etc.) is a topic of widespread research. Organic geochemistry laboratories all over the world are involved in the task of developing both global1,10&#160;and regional11-13&#160;calibrations between branched GDGTs and (primarily) temperature. Thus, the equations given above are regularly being refined and perfected.
Branched GDGTs are usually extracted from lacustrine sediments, although coastal marine sediments have also been investigated. The extracts undergo a silica gel column to purify the GDGTs from other compounds which may not be LC amenable or that may co-elute with GDGTs chromatographically. The GDGTs come out in the polar fraction that elutes in methanol.
Once the total lipid extract is purified, the extracted and purified sample is run on a high performance liquid chromatograph coupled to a chemical ionization mass spectrometer. The relative concentration of the GDGTs is determined by obtaining the area under the curve for the selected mass ion (m/z; Figure 1) for each of the compounds on computer software designed for just this purpose (such as Agilent Chemstation). These areas are then put into the selected calibration equation in order to arrive at a paleotemperature determination.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10256/10256fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Structures of the branched GDGTs used for calculating temperature via MBT/CBT proxy (used with permission of Dr. Isla Casta&#241;eda, who produced the image). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/10256/10256fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0">
Organic compounds called biomarkers can be used in Earth Science as paleothermometers to relate information on climates and environments of the past.
Living organisms produce these biomarkers, which provide us with information about the environment in which they lived. They can act as a proxy to tell us information about past events, like the Earth&#8217;s temperature millions of years ago.
Terrestrial paleotemperature can be analyzed using biomarkers found in sediment from fresh-water basins. One key class of these biomarkers are branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers, or branched GDGTs.
This video will introduce the area of study, called paleoclimatology, which investigates past changes in fresh-water environments over hundreds of millions of year. This helps elucidate current and future climate and environmental changes.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_1">
Sediments accumulate over geologic time, due to fluid movement and gravity, in sedimentary basins, or low areas in the Earth&#8217;s crust. Sedimentary basins include oceans, which collect marine sediment, or lakes, which collect lacustrine sediment. Marine and lacustrine basins contain different types of organisms, driven in large part by the difference in salinity between them. Thus, marine and lacustrine basins contain different biomarkers.
Branched GDGTs are thought to be membrane-spanning lipids of anaerobic acidobacteria. Research suggests that the producing organisms change membrane properties in response to changing temperature.
This change is caused by the transformation of methylated sites on the branched GDGT&#8217;s to cyclized sites at colder temperatures, thereby enhancing membrane fluidity. This change in structure can then be correlated to temperature through a proxy. Proxies are measureable physical phenomena that are correlated to immeasurable variable.
This proxy relates the number of methylations or MBT, and cyclizations, or CBT, in the biomarker to temperature. An experimentally-derived equation can relate MBT and CBT to the past Mean Annual Air Temperature.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_2">
To study the relationship between branched GDGT biomarkers and soil temperature, lacustrine sediment must be collected, extracted by one of three techniques, purified, and analyzed.
To begin studying the relationship between branched GDGT biomarkers and soil temperature, the lipid molecules are first extracted from lacustrine sediments, using a variety of techniques. Extraction via sonication is the simplest and least expensive method of obtaining the total lipid extract, or TLE, from a sediment sample. For this, an ultrasonic bath is used to agitate the sample in a vial containing organic solvent. A mixture of methanol and dichloromethane is used to extract biomarkers with a wide range of polarities. Another extraction technique utilizes Soxhlet extraction. A Soxhlet extractor enables the reflux, or continuous cycling, of organic solvent from a round-bottom flask upward into a condenser, which is cooled by cold water and returned. The condensed solvent falls into a glass fiber thimble containing the sample. Once full, the chamber siphons the organic solvent back into the round-bottom flask, enabling continuous extraction over time.
This technique is helpful in the extraction of large sediment masses, and the preparation of large volumes of standards for instrument calibration. Finally, accelerated solvent extraction, or ASE, is a trademarked method of extraction that utilizes high temperature and pressure to increase the kinetics of the extraction process. The ASE instrument holds up to 24 individual samples, and allows for precise control of all parameters in the extraction process. Due to its speed and simplicity of use, ASE is commonly used as the standard method of solvent extraction.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_3">
Once the lipid sample is extracted using one of these techniques, it is purified in preparation for analysis. Typically, silica gel column chromatography is used to purify the lipid sample based on its polarity. For this, a small glass column is loaded with a fine powder of silica, called a gel. The column is then saturated with an apolar solvent, typically hexane, and then the sample loaded on the top. The separation of the extract is based on the affinity of the target compound for either the solid phase or the solvent phase.
Polar compounds, in this case branched GDGT&#39;s, are more attracted to the polar silica than the apolar hexane. Thus, the apolar compounds, such as hydrocarbons, the mid-polar compounds, such as ketones and alcohols, and the highly polar compounds, will travel the column at different rates and in response to solvents of increasing polarity.
The eluents are then collected in separate fractions.
The purified GDGT&#39;s are then analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer, or LC-MS. LC-MS first separates the compounds, and then analyzes them based on their mass-to-charge ratio.
This enables the determination of the relative concentration of each type of GDGT using the area under the curve for the selected mass ion. MBT is calculated as the fraction of the group 1 molecules to the total.
CBT is then calculated as a negative log using molecules in groups 1 and 2. MBT and CBT are then plugged into an experimentally-derived equation, in order to arrive at a paleotemperature determination.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_4">
The determination of paleotemperature using biomarker proxies is useful in a range of applications in earth science.
First, paleothermometry enables the determination of the Earth&#39;s temperature over long periods of time. Using various techniques, the temperature of Earth has been estimated as far back as 500 million years. This tells us the envelope of temperature within which different forms of life evolved and informs investigations of the effects of temperature on Earth&#39;s biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere in the past, and by extension, the future.
More recent trends in the Earths temperature can also be quantified against records constructed using paleothermometry. The Earths surface temperature has increased by nearly 1 degree from 1850 to the present with an accentuated warming trend in the last two decades. To understand the anthropogenic impact on global climate, accurate paleoclimate records must be developed and used as context.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_5">
You&#39;ve just watched JoVE&#39;s Overview of Branched Glycerol Dialkyl Glycerol Tetraether Paleothermometry. You should now understand how the branched GDGT biomarkers are used, and the overall technique of extracting and purifying them. The following videos in this series will go into more detail about this complex process.
Thanks for watching!
</div>

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Throughout this series of videos, natural samples were extracted and ...

An Overview of Alkenone Biomarker Analysis for Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Throughout this series of videos, natural samples were extracted and purified in search of organic compounds, called biomarkers, that can relate information on climates and environments of the past. One of the samples analyzed was sediment. Sediments accumulate over geologic time in basins, depressions in the Earth into which sediment flows through the action of fluid (water or air), movement, and gravity. Two main types of basins exist, marine (oceans and seas) and lacustrine (lakes). As one might guess, very different types of life live in these settings, driven in large part by the difference in salinity between them. Over the last few decades, organic geochemists discovered a toolbox of biomarker proxies, or compounds that can be used to describe climate or environment, some of which work in marine environments and some of which work in lacustrine. We turn our attention here to the marine realm and alkenone paleothermometry using the Uk&#39;37 sea surface temperature proxy.
The most well-established and widely applied open-ocean biomarker sea surface temperature (SST) proxy is Uk&#39;37.
Uk&#39;37 = (C37:2) / (C37:2 + C37:3) (see Herbert1 for a review)
The index is based on the ratio of two polyunsaturated long-chain alkyl ketones, called alkenones, produced by some classes of haptophyte algae2,3. Culture4,5&#160;and core-top sediment6&#160;calibration studies led to the development of the Uk&#39;37 Index as a quantitative SST proxy. Amazingly, the culture-based calibration of Prahl et al.4:
Uk&#39;37 = 0.034(SST) + 0.039,
And the core-top calibration of M&#252;ller et al.6,
Uk&#39;37 = 0.033(SST) + 0.044,
are statistically identical.
Reconstructed Uk&#39;37 temperatures correlate best with mean annual SST for a variety of climate and haptophyte production regimes in the global ocean7. Alkenones are detected in marine sediment cores of early Eocene to modern age8, and in exposed outcrops of uplifted marine sediment9&#160;suggesting they are very stable over geologic time, and thus useful as a paleoclimate tool. Uk&#39;37 has been used to document paleo sea surface temperature changes at decadal10&#160;to orbital11,12&#160;timescales and are therefore very versatile.
In the open ocean, the coccolithophores Emiliania huxleyi and Gephyrocapsa oceanica are responsible for most alkenone production. It is not yet known why these haptophytes alter the unsaturation ratio of alkenones based on growth temperature. It was initially thought that alkenones were components of haptophyte cell walls and that their unsaturation was adjusted in order to keep the membrane fluid, much like saturated fats are solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fats are fluid. However, experiments aimed at this question found that instead of being associated with the cell membranes, alkenones were associated with energy storage structures inside the cell. Thus, their use inside the cell remains an open question.
Recently, alkenones have been found in lacustrine environments. However, their utility has so far been limited. Different alkenone producers than those in the marine realm dwell in lakes and thus the calibration between water temperature and unsaturation (Uk&#39;37) is different. Moreover, this calibration is different between lakes, making the creation of a &#39;global&#39; calibration unlikely. Unfortunately, the creation of local calibrations is expensive and time consuming and so the future for Uk&#39;37 in lakes is also currently limited.
Alkenones are usually extracted from marine sediments. Very often the same organisms that produce alkenones produce fatty acid methyl esters of those alkenones called alkenoates. These compounds co-elute with the alkenones on a gas chromatograph and complicate their quantification. Therefore, these extracts will often undergo a saponification to remove alkenoates. Because the saponification produces carboxylic acids that are not gas chromatograph amenable, a silica gel column must be performed after the saponification to remove the carboxylic acids from the extract. The alkenones come out in the middle polarity ketone fraction that elutes in dichloromethane while the acids are left on the column. Lastly, in extreme cases, such as in sediments acquired from highly polluted areas, like estuaries near industrial centers, a urea adduction may also be required to remove unknown compounds that coelute with the alkenones on the gas chromatograph.
Once the total lipid extract is purified, the extracted and purified sample is run on a gas chromatograph coupled to a flame ionizing detector. The relative concentration of the two alkenones is determined by obtaining the area under the curve for each of the compounds on computer software designed for just this purpose (such as Agilent Chemstation). These areas are then put into the Uk&#39;37 ratio equation shown above to get a Uk&#39;37 value that ranges between 0 and 1. These Uk&#39;37 values are then mapped to sea surface temperature value using a calibration such as those described above.
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0">
Paleothermometry is the calculation of past temperatures by analysis of specific chemicals in natural samples, like those left behind by prehistoric algae.
Algae are a diverse group of organisms that have been abundant in Earth&#39;s oceans and lakes for millennia. Certain chemical compounds, which are deposited in sediment by ancient algae, act as biomarkers &#8211; organic compounds that can provide researchers with valuable insight into Earth&#8217;s history. In fact, analysis of algal biomarker content in sediment allows researchers to determine the Earth&#8217;s temperature hundreds of millions of years ago.
One such record comes from some species of coccolithophores. These algae produce varying amounts of alkenones, a class of robust biomarkers, based on the temperature of their environment. Alkenone analysis is primarily used to calculate the sea surface temperature of Earth&#39;s oceans eons and eons ago.
This video will illustrate the use of alkenones in paleoclimatology and describe the process of isolating, purifying, and analyzing alkenones to calculate past sea surface temperature.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_1">
As its name implies, &#8220;Alkenone paleothermometry&#8221; is based on the analysis if lipids, known as alkenones Alkenone paleothermometry is based on alkenones; long-chain, unsaturated alkyl ketones that contain 37 carbon atoms and 2 to 4 double bonds. Each double bond is a site of unsaturation. At low sea surface temperatures, alkenone producers generate more unsaturated alkenones than saturated. The ratio of saturation to unsaturation is known as the Alkenone Unsaturation Index.
The alkenones usually evaluated are C37:2 and C37:3, which have 37 carbons and two or three double bonds, respectively. The Unsaturation Index of these alkenones, or the UK&#39;37, is positively related to sea surface temperature. The analytical method know as gas chromatography is generally sensitive enough to separate these alkenones from one another. However, alkenone-producing algae often also generate chemically-similar fatty acid methyl esters, or alkenoates, which cannot be distinguished from alkenones using this technique.&#160;Hydrocarbon contamination from pollution may also further muddy chromatographic analysis. To accurately determine relative alkenone concentration, alkenoates and unknown hydrocarbons must be removed before analysis by the methods of saponification and urea adduction.
Now that the relationship of sediment alkenone ratios to sea surface temperature has been reviewed, let&#39;s look at the techniques for their purification from a total lipid extract and analysis of the unsaturation ratio.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_2">
Once marine sediment has been collected and extracted, the total lipid extract, or TLE, must go through a multistep purification process, and analyzed. First, the extract undergoes saponification to convert alkenoates into carboxylate salts and methanol using a strong base and heat. Other fatty acid esters present in the TLE will be saponified into salts and glycerol.
After cooling the mixture to room temperature, an aqueous salt solution is added to form salts and glycerol. The mixture is then acidified to protonate the carboxylate anions, producing fatty acids. Finally, the alkenones and fatty acids are extracted from the mixture with hexane.
Silica gel chromatography is then performed to remove both apolar compounds and the polar fatty acids produced by saponification. The dried and saponified TLE is dissolved in hexane and then loaded onto a column. Silica retains polar compounds more strongly than apolar ones.
First, apolar compounds are removed with an apolar solvent, like hexane. Next, alkenones are eluted by a moderately polar solvent, such as dichloromethane, leaving the highly polar fatty acids and other unwanted polar compounds on the column.
If the original sediment sample was collected from a highly polluted area, urea adduction is performed to remove any remaining highly branched or cyclic hydrocarbons. The dried mid-polarity fraction is dissolved in a solvent mixture in which the strongly polar urea is minimally soluble, such as DCM and hexane. A concentrated solution of urea in methanol is then added to the TLE, causing urea crystals to precipitate.
Straight-chain molecules such as alkenones fit into the spaces between molecules in the urea crystal lattice, but highly branched and cyclic molecules do not, and are expelled.
Once crystal growth has finished, the urea crystals are dried and then washed with an apolar solvent to remove expelled compounds. Then, the crystals are dissolved in a small amount of water. The alkenones are extracted from the water with an apolar solvent for analysis.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_3">
While all previous purification steps did not differentiate between alkenone species, small differences in boiling point and molecular structure are sufficient for separation on a gas chromatography column. When paired with a flame-ionization detector, relative concentrations of the&#160;alkenones, can be determined.
Molecules are identified on the chromatogram by their retention time, or the time needed for the compound to be exit the column. The retention times of the desired compounds are ascertained with alkenone standards.
The relative concentrations of the alkenones are determined from analysis of the areas under the peaks of interest. The UK&#39;37 value is then calculated from the concentrations of C37:2and C37:3 in the sample. With the sea surface temperature proxy relationship and the UK&#39;37 value, the analyst can solve for sea surface temperature at the time of the sediment deposition.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_4">
Many different facets of Earth&#39;s history can be investigated by analysis of sediment and sedimentary rock.
Biostratigraphy is the study of determining the ages of layers, or strata, of rock by analysis of the fossils present. As there are many sources of sediment, sedimentary rocks from the same time period may have dramatically different compositions around the world. Certain sets of species throughout Earth&#39;s history, such as the ammonites, existed worldwide and underwent rapid evolution. If visually dissimilar rock strata both contain the same species of ammonite, then a temporal correlation between the strata can be drawn. When combined with techniques such as paleothermometry, extensive information about Earth&#39;s history can be determined from fossil records in natural samples.
Many species of foraminifera, or forams, are found in marine sediments worldwide. Forams have calcium carbonate shells and have existed throughout Earth&#39;s oceans for millions of years. Many species&#160;live on the ocean floor, and thus can provide temperature information about deeper parts of the ocean. The magnesium to calcium ratio of forams&#160;corresponds to temperature, as they incorporate more magnesium into their shells in warmer climates. The multitude of species and the abundance of forams makes their fossil record useful for tracking changes in ocean currents throughout Earth&#39;s history and for biostratigraphy.
As tectonic plates diverge, new rock forms between them. Correspondingly, the properties of the rock surrounding a divergent plate boundary provide information about plate movements over time. For instance, changes in Earth&#39;s magnetic field are preserved in some minerals found in fossils, rock, and sediment. The discovery of symmetric changes in magnetism about mid-ocean ridges significantly contributed to the current understanding of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.
</div>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_5">
You&#39;ve just watched JoVE&#39;s Overview of Alkenone Paleothermometry. You should now understand the principles of paleothermometry and the relationship of alkenone ratios in marine sediment to sea surface temperature. The following videos in this series will go into more detail about this complex process.
Thanks for watching!
</div>

Sonication Extraction of Lipid Biomarkers from Sediment

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The material comprising the living &#34;organic&#34; share of any ecosystem (leaves, fungi, bark, tissue; Figure 1) differs fundamentally from the material of the non-living &#34;inorganic&#34; share (rocks and their constituent minerals, oxygen, water, metals). Organic material contains carbon linked to a series of other carbon and hydrogen molecules (Figure 2), which distinguishes it from inorganic material. Carbon&#39;s wide valency range (-4 to +4) allows it to form up to four separate covalent bonds with neighboring atoms, usually C, H, O, N, S, and P. It can also share up to three covalent bonds with a single other atom, such as the triple bond in the often-poisonous cyanide, or nitrile, group. Over the past 4.6 billion years, this flexibility has led to an amazing array of chemical structures, which vary in size, complexity, polarity, shape, and function. The scientific field of organic geochemistry is concerned with the identification and characterization of the whole range of detectable organic compounds, called biomarkers, produced by life on this planet, as well as others, through geologic time.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10055/10055fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Organic material, such as trees, leaves, and moss, are chemically and visually distinct from inorganic material, such as pavement.

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The material comprising the living &#34;organic&#34; share of any ecosystem ...

Soxhlet Extraction of Lipid Biomarkers from Sediment

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Every lab needs standards that track the performance, accuracy, and precision of its instruments over time to ensure a measurement made today is the same as a measurement made a year from now (Figure 1). Because standards must test the performance of instruments over a long period of time, large volumes of the standards are often required. Many chemical standards can be purchased from retail scientific companies, like Sigma-Aldrich and Fisher. However, some compounds that occur in nature and that are relevant to paleoclimatic studies have not yet been isolated and purified for purchase. Therefore, these compounds need to be extracted from natural samples, and because of the large volumes of standards required, large volumes of sediment need to be extracted. The Accelerated Solvent Extraction (Dionex) and sonication extractions are not appropriate for the extraction of such large sediment volumes. In these circumstances, a Soxhlet extraction is used.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10096/10096fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Schematic depicting how chemical standard tracks the performance of an instrument through time. The dashed line represents a 1:1 relationship between the accepted and measured (on the instrument) value of a variable. Each star is a weekly measurement of the chemical standard. Green stars represent standards that are accurate. Red stars reflect those that are not accurate indicating that the instrument requires corrective maintenance.

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
Every lab needs standards that track the performance, accuracy, and ...

Extraction of Biomarkers from Sediments - Accelerated Solvent Extraction

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The distribution of a group of organic biomarkers called glycerol-dialkyl glycerol-tetraethers (GDGTs), produced by a suite of archaea and bacteria, were found in modern sediments to change in a predictable manner in response to air or water temperature1,2. Therefore, the distribution of these biomarkers in a sequence of sediments of known age can be used to reconstruct the evolution of air and/or water temperature on decadal to millennial timescales (Figure 1). The production of long high-resolution records of past climates, called paleoclimatology, depends on the rapid analysis of hundreds, possibly thousands of samples. Older extraction techniques, such as sonication or Soxhlet, are too slow. However, the newer Accelerated Solvent Extraction technique was designed with efficiency in mind.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10097/10097fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. An example of a paleoclimate record showing changes in sea surface temperature (SST) in the eastern Mediterranean Sea during the past ~27,000 years3. This record comprises ~115 samples and is based on the isoprenoidal GDGT-based TEX86 SST proxy.

Accelerated Solvent Extraction of Total Lipid from Sediments

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The distribution of a group of organic biomarkers called glycerol-dialkyl ...

Conversion of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters by Saponification for Uk'37 Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The product of an organic solvent extraction, a total lipid extract (TLE), is often a complex mixture of hundreds, if not thousands, of different compounds. The researcher is often only interested in a handful of compounds or, if interested in many, may need to remove unwanted constituents that are&#34;in the way&#34; or co-eluting. For example, the concentrations of individual compounds in a sample are often determined on a gas chromatograph coupled to a flame-ionizing detector (GC-FID), because the relationship between FID response (in pA) and the amount of compound in a sample (e.g., ng/&#181;L) is both linear and sensitive. The GC portion of the instrument separates different compounds in a sample based on their boiling point, chemical structure, and affinity with a solid phase that can change according to application. The result is a chromatogram (Figure 1), showing the separation of different chemical constituents in time, as well as their relative concentration (calculated as the area under the curve). However, sometimes more than one compound elutes off the GC at a time (Figure 1). In this case, sample purification is required before compounds can be confidently quantified. 
&#160;
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10158/10158fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. A chromatogram showing the separation of different chemical constituents over time and their relative concentration (area under the curve). Co-eluting and separated peaks are shown.

Purification of Alkenones via Saponification for Uk&#039;37 Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The product of an organic solvent extraction, a total lipid extract (TLE), ...

Purification of a Total Lipid Extract with Column Chromatography

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
The product of an organic solvent extraction, a total lipid extract (TLE), is often a complex mixture of hundreds, if not thousands, of different compounds. The researcher is often only interested in a handful of compounds. The compounds of interest may belong to one of several classes of compounds, such as alkanes, ketones, alcohols, or acids (Figure 1), and it may be useful to remove the compound classes to which it does not belong in order to get a clearer view of the compounds you are interested in. For example, a TLE may contain 1,000 compounds, but the Uk&#39;37 sea surface temperature proxy is based on only two compounds (alkenones) and the TEX86 sea surface temperature proxy is based on only four (glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers). It would behoove the researcher to remove as many of the compounds they are not interested in. This makes the instrumental analysis of the compounds of interest (alkenones or GDGTs) less likely to be complicated by other extraneous compounds.
In other cases, an upstream purification technique may have produced compounds you wish to now remove from the sample, such as the production of carboxylic acids during saponification in our previous video. In both of the above cases the purification technique called column chromatography is very useful.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10159/10159fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Geochemically important functional groups. From Killops and Killops1.

Removal of Branched and Cyclic Compounds by Urea Adduction for Uk'37 Paleothermometry

Source: Laboratory of Jeff Salacup&#160;- University of Massachusetts Amherst
As mentioned in previous videos, the product of an organic solvent extraction, a total lipid extract (TLE), is often a complex mixture of hundreds, if not thousands, of different compounds. The researcher is often only interested in a handful of compounds. In the case of our two organic paleothermometers (Uk&#39;37 and MBT/CBT), the interest is in only 6 compounds (2 alkenones and 4 isoprenoidal glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers). As discussed in the previous two videos in this series, purification techniques may be applied in order to pare down the number of compounds in an analyzed sample. These techniques may chemically alter the unwanted components (saponification), take advantage of the different compound chemistries (column chromatography), or use the different shapes and sizes of the molecules to include or exclude certain components from the analysis (urea adduction). The atomic structure of different chemicals leads some organic compounds to form long, narrow, straight chains (n-alkanes and alkenones), other organic compounds to form complex cyclic structures, others to form highly-branched structures, and yet others which form both cyclic and branched structures (GDGTs) (Figure 1). The different shapes and sizes of the compounds in a sample can be used to separate them from one another, in much the same way as a coin sorter separates coins of different denominations (sizes).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10160/10160fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Comparison of different chemical structures. Decane, a straight-chained alkane (A; from from http://www.bpc.edu/mathscience/chemistry), cyclohexane, a cyclic alkane (B; from http://www.bpc.edu/mathscience/chemistry), a steroid, a poly-cyclic hydrocarbon (C; from www.wikiwand.com), and 2,2-dimethylbutane, a branched alkane (D; www.wikimedia.com). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/10160/10160fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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