Los autores desean agradecer Alexandra Opie de asistencia y apoyo técnico, James Barton para proporcionar narración de vídeo, y Ramona Flatz y Joellen Sweeney por aparecer en el video adjunto. Este trabajo fue apoyado por el MJ Murdock Charitable Trust (Grant No. 2012205 a JED).

1. El Sistema de Microscopio estéreo Nota: Aunque este protocolo es fácilmente adaptable a prácticamente cualquier sistema de microscopio estéreo acoplado a una cámara digital con la capacidad de adquisición de vídeo, los detalles se proporcionan en el sistema utilizado en nuestro laboratorio (Tabla de Materiales / Equipos). <ol><li> Adquirir vídeo digital usando un microscopio estéreo trinocular acoplado a una cámara digital comercial. </li><li> Para acoplar la cámara digital comercial al puerto trinocular del microscopio estereoscópico, retire el ½ x C-monte del puerto phototube del microscopio estereoscópico y reemplazarlo con un C-mount 1X. </li><li> Montar un acoplador de la cámara digital (43 mm de rosca) a la C-mount 1X. </li><li> Monte dos anillos reductores, 58 mm a 48 mm, y 48 mm a 43 mm, hasta el acoplador de la cámara para cerrar la conexión del acoplador de la cámara digital a un kit adaptador de lente para la cámara digital. </li><li> Monte la cámara digital al kit adaptador de lente. </li><li> Adquirir video con el microscopio óptico y el zoom óptico de la serie cámara digital para un aumento combinado de aproximadamente 12 aumentos (30 fotogramas por segundo, 640 x 480 píxeles). Nota: El aumento del microscopio estéreo debe ser compensado de acuerdo con la recién reconfigurada 1X C-monte del puerto trinocular. </li></ol> 2. Imaging Drosophila larvas de tercer estadio <ol><li> Cinta un marcador permanente a la placa de la platina negro de un microscopio estereoscópico acoplado a una cámara digital, de manera que el lado de la tapa marcador ocupa aproximadamente ⅓ a ¼ del campo de visión vertical observada en el monitor LCD de la cámara. Utilice tapas de marcadores como la etapa para realizar las imágenes de las larvas porque vienen en una variedad de colores que se pueden utilizar para el código de color y diferenciar los genotipos de las larvas a ser visualizada. </li><li> Delimita el campo de visión observada en el monitor LCD de la cámara digital en la superficie de la parte superior con un marcador de punta finamarcador. </li><li> Seleccionar un tercer instar de la larva de la imagen. Los criterios para seleccionar las larvas de tercer instar era la longitud del cuerpo, la salida de la fuente de alimento durante la fase larvaria del ciclo de vida, la presencia de espiráculos anterior y posterior, y la estructura de los ganchos inferiores del aparato de la boca 11. Asegúrese de que la larva es limpio lavándolo bien con agua. </li><li> Ilumine la etapa superior marcador permanente desde arriba con la luz de un sistema de iluminación por fibra óptica. Ajuste el ángulo de la luz incidente para proporcionar la iluminación óptima. </li><li> Enfoque del microscopio en el borde de la parte superior marcador permanente. Comience la adquisición de vídeo digital. </li><li> Coloque la larva en el lado de la tapa de marcador de aproximadamente 75 ° fuera del eje vertical, justo fuera del campo de visión, con la parte anterior de la larva que mira hacia el campo de visión (Figura 1). Nota: La colocación de la larva en el lado de la tapa de marcador permite a la cámara para registrar el movimiento de le larva desde una perspectiva lateral. Ayuda a mantener la larva húmedo con agua para que no se caen del lado de la tapa del marcador. Se debe tener cuidado, sin embargo, no usar demasiada agua como cantidades excesivas se adherirán a la larva que se arrastra a través del campo. </li><li> Clave suavemente y empujar a la larva con un pincel pequeño para coaccionar a arrastrarse por el campo de visión. Sea paciente como las larvas raramente cooperar ya menudo tienen que ser devueltos al punto de partida muchas veces antes de que se arrastran directamente a través del campo. </li><li> Record aproximadamente 10-15 minutos de ininterrumpida video digital y de cultivos y retirar todo el material innecesario después de la adquisición con el software de edición de vídeo digital. </li></ol> 3. Imaging Drosophila Adulto <ol><li> Coloque un solo adulto de Drosophila en una desechable de 1,5 ml cubeta de poliestireno espectroscópico. Nota: CO 2 para la anestesia de adultos Drosophila inmediatamente antes de un comporprotocolo de análisis conductuales puede comprometer los resultados 12. Se recomienda que los adultos Drosophila disponer de un plazo de 24 horas para recuperarse de CO 2 para la anestesia antes de realizar una prueba de comportamiento 13. </li><li> Conecte el extremo de la cubeta con una pequeña bola de algodón. Asegúrese de que la bola de algodón está lleno suficientemente apretado para ocupar el espacio de gran capitalización y limita la marcha para el compartimiento de reducción del volumen de la cubeta. </li><li> Colocar la cubeta en la placa blanca etapa de un microscopio estéreo y alinear correctamente el compartimiento de volumen reducido de la cubeta con el campo de visión observada en el monitor LCD de la cámara digital. </li><li> Iluminar la cubeta desde arriba con la luz de un sistema de iluminación de fibra óptica. Ajuste el ángulo de la luz incidente para proporcionar la iluminación óptima. </li><li> Enfoque el microscopio y comenzar a adquirir de vídeo digital. </li><li> Record aproximadamente 30-45 min de ininterrumpida imágenes de vídeo digital y de cultivos y eliminar todos los innecesariosimágenes post-adquisición con el software de edición de vídeo digital. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Zhang, B., Freeman, M. R., Waddell, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Drosophila neurobiology: a laboratory manual. , (2010).</li><li>Frank, C. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+approaches+for+studying+synaptic+development,+function,+and+plasticity+using+Drosophila+as+a+model+system.">New approaches for studying synaptic development, function, and plasticity using Drosophila as a model system.</a> J Neurosci. 33, 17560-17568 (2013).</li><li>Mudher, A., Newman, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Drosophila : a toolbox for the study of neurodegenerative disease. , (2008).</li><li>Bilen, J., Bonini, N. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drosophila+as+a+model+for+human+neurodegenerative+disease.">Drosophila as a model for human neurodegenerative disease.</a> Annu Rev Genet. 39, 153-171 (2005).</li><li>Jakubowski, B. R., Longoria, R. A., Shubeita, G. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+high+throughput+and+sensitive+method+correlates+neuronal+disorder+genotypes+to+Drosophila+larvae+crawling+phenotypes.">A high throughput and sensitive method correlates neuronal disorder genotypes to Drosophila larvae crawling phenotypes.</a> Fly (Austin). 6, 303-308 (2012).</li><li>Caldwell, J. C., Miller, M. M., Wing, S., Soll, D. R., Eberl, D. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+analysis+of+larval+locomotion+in+Drosophila+chordotonal+organ+mutants).">Dynamic analysis of larval locomotion in Drosophila chordotonal organ mutants).</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100, 16053-16058 (2003).</li><li>Jahn, T. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+early+locomotor+abnormalities+in+a+Drosophila+model+of+Alzheimer's+disease.">Detection of early locomotor abnormalities in a Drosophila model of Alzheimer's disease.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 197, 186-189 (2011).</li><li>Donelson, N. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+positional+tracking+for+long-term+analysis+of+Drosophila+sleep+and+locomotion+using+the+&amp;#34;tracker&amp;#34;+program.">High-resolution positional tracking for long-term analysis of Drosophila sleep and locomotion using the &amp;#34;tracker&amp;#34; program.</a> PLoS ONE. 7, e37250 (2012).</li><li>Slawson, J. B., Kim, E. Z., Griffith, L. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+video+tracking+of+locomotion+in+adult+Drosophila+melanogaster.">High-resolution video tracking of locomotion in adult Drosophila melanogaster.</a> J Vis Exp. (24), (2009).</li><li>Colomb, J., Reiter, L., Blaszkiewicz, J., Wessnitzer, J., Brembs, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Open+source+tracking+and+analysis+of+adult+Drosophila+locomotion+in+Buridan's+paradigm+with+and+without+visual+targets.">Open source tracking and analysis of adult Drosophila locomotion in Buridan's paradigm with and without visual targets.</a> PLoS ONE. 7, e42247 (2012).</li><li>Demerec, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Biology of Drosophila. , (1965).</li><li>Barron, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anaesthetising+Drosophila+for+behavioural+studies.">Anaesthetising Drosophila for behavioural studies.</a> J Insect Physiol. 46, 439-442 (2000).</li><li>Greenspan, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Fly pushing : the theory and practice of Drosophila genetics.. , (2004).</li><li>Duncan, J. E., Lytle, N. K., Zuniga, A., Goldstein, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Microtubule+Regulatory+Protein+Stathmin+Is+Required+to+Maintain+the+Integrity+of+Axonal+Microtubules+in+Drosophila.">The Microtubule Regulatory Protein Stathmin Is Required to Maintain the Integrity of Axonal Microtubules in Drosophila.</a> 8, e683244 (2013).</li><li>Belmont, L. D., Mitchison, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+a+protein+that+interacts+with+tubulin+dimers+and+increases+the+catastrophe+rate+of+microtubules.">Identification of a protein that interacts with tubulin dimers and increases the catastrophe rate of microtubules.</a> Cell. 84, 623-631 (1996).</li><li>Cassimeris, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+oncoprotein+18/stathmin+family+of+microtubule+destabilizers.">The oncoprotein 18/stathmin family of microtubule destabilizers.</a> Curr Opin Cell Biol. 14, 18-24 (2002).</li></ol>

Los autores han declarado que no existen conflictos de intereses.

Fuerza Drosophila melanogaster &#39;s como un sistema modelo para el estudio de la función del sistema nervioso proviene en gran medida de la convergencia de las poderosas herramientas genéticas disponibles y la amplia gama de ensayos de comportamiento robusto desarrollado. Aquí presentamos una técnica sencilla y ampliamente accesible de microscopía para la adquisición de vídeo digital de alta calidad de Drosophila adulta y fenotipos de la locomotora de larvas desde una perspectiva lateral. Hemo...

La fruta común mosca Drosophila melanogaster es un potente sistema de modelo experimental para el estudio de la función del sistema nervioso 1-3. Conservación evolutiva de la estructura y función del sistema nervioso con los seres humanos, así como la facilidad de la manipulación genética y una amplia gama de herramientas genéticas hace Drosophila el organismo estreno para modelar enfermedades neurodegenerativas humano 4. Las mutaciones genéticas que causan la disfunción del sistema nervioso a menudo resultan en larvas mutante viable y adultos de Drosophila con una alteración de la locomoción. Fenotipos observados en el sistema nervioso mutantes defectuosos incluyen la frecuencia de la locomoción, la coordinación aberrante, y los movimientos espásticos en adultos, así como déficits en la contracción peristáltica musculatura de la pared corporal, y parálisis parcial de las larvas reducen. Estos fenotipos se han explotado en el desarrollo de pantallas genéticos de alto rendimiento y ensayos de locomoción de larvas mutante 5, 6 y adultos 7-10 Drosophila dirigido a cuantificar el deterioro locomoción y la identificación de genes necesarios para la función del sistema nervioso. Si bien estos enfoques son extremadamente útiles para la cuantificación de los comportamientos locomotores larvas y adultos, fracasan para transmitir información cualitativa acerca de cada comportamiento aberrante específico. Por ejemplo, mientras que las larvas de tercer estadio mutante puede exhibir parámetros de locomoción alterados en un ensayo de comportamiento, puede ser poco claro si este es el resultado de alteraciones en las contracciones peristálticas rítmicas durante el ciclo de rastreo, la falta general de coordinación, o parálisis parcial del cuerpo posterior musculatura de la pared. Aquí se describe una técnica simple y ampliamente accesible de microscopía para la adquisición de vídeo digital de alta calidad de Drosophila adulta y fenotipos de la locomotora de larvas desde una perspectiva lateral. El vídeo digital adquirido desde una perspectiva lateral permite la observación directa y el análisis de las diferencias sutiles en locomotive comportamientos desde una orientación de vista lateral más informativo.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Trinocular Stereozoom Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus Corporation</td>
			<td>SZ6145TR</td>
			<td>&#189; C-mount was removed and replaced with 1x C-mount</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1X C-mount</td>
			<td>Leeds Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>LSZ-1XCMT2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Camera Coupler (43mm thread)</td>
			<td>Qioptiq Imaging Solutions</td>
			<td>25-70-10-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>58mm to 48mm Step Down Ring</td>
			<td>B&#38;H Video</td>
			<td>GBSDR5848</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>48mm to 43mm Step Down Ring</td>
			<td>B&#38;H Video</td>
			<td>GBSDR4843</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lensmate Adapter Kit for Canon G10</td>
			<td>LensMateOnline.com</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Canon PowerShot G10 Digital Camera</td>
			<td>Canon U.S.A., Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5ml Spectroscopic PolystereneCuvette</td>
			<td>Denville Scientific</td>
			<td>U8650-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

acquisition of high-quality digital video of drosophila larval and adult behaviors from a lateral perspective

Drosophila melanogaster es un potente sistema de modelo experimental para el estudio de la función del sistema nervioso. Las mutaciones genéticas que causan la disfunción del sistema nervioso a menudo producen larvas viables y adultos que tienen fenotipos de locomoción defectuosos que son difíciles de describir adecuadamente con el texto o completamente representar con una sola imagen fotográfica. Modos actuales de la publicación científica, sin embargo, apoyan la presentación de los medios de comunicación de vídeo digital como material complementario para acompañar a un manuscrito. Aquí se describe una técnica simple y ampliamente accesible de microscopía para la adquisición de vídeo digital de alta calidad tanto de Drosophila fenotipos larvas y adultos desde una perspectiva lateral. Vídeo de la locomoción de larvas y adultos desde una vista lateral es ventajoso porque permite la observación y el análisis de las distinciones sutiles y variaciones en los comportamientos aberrantes de locomotoras. Hemos utilizado con éxito la técnica para visualizar y cuantificar aberrant arrastrándose comportamientos en larvas de tercer estadio, además de fenotipos mutantes adultas y comportamientos que incluyen la preparación.

Hemos utilizado con éxito esta técnica para adquirir y cuantificar el comportamiento de las larvas fenotipo asociado con la pérdida de la función del gen estatmina (Figura 2) 14. El gen codifica una proteína estatmina reguladora de microtúbulos que divide los dímeros de tubulina de piscinas de tubulina soluble, y se une a los microtúbulos y promueve su desmontaje 15,16. Se requiere la función Estatmina para mantener la integridad de los microtúbulos en l...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective at JoVE.com

Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective

Aquí se describe una técnica de microscopía simple y ampliamente accesibles para la adquisición de vídeo digital de alta calidad de Drosophila adulta y fenotipos mutantes larvas desde una perspectiva lateral.

Adquisición de vídeo de alta calidad digital de<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Comportamientos larvas y adultos desde una perspectiva lateral

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful experimental model system for studying the function of the nervous system. Gene mutations that cause dysfunction of ...

acquisition-high-quality-digital-video-drosophila-larval-adult

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective

8.7K vistas.  Willamette University.  Aquí se describe una técnica de microscopía simple y ampliamente accesibles para la adquisición de vídeo digital de alta calidad de Drosophila adulta y fenotipos mutantes larvas desde una perspectiva lateral. 

Video: Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective

Visualization of Larval Segmental Nerves in 3rd Instar Drosophila Larval Preparations

Drosophila melanogaster is emerging as a powerful model system for studying the development and function of the nervous system, particularly because of its convenient genetics and fully sequenced genome. Additionally, the larval nervous system is an ideal model system to study mechanisms of axonal transport as the larval segmental nerves contain bundles of axons with their cell bodies located within the brain and their nerve terminals ending along the length of the body. Here we describe the procedure for visualization of synaptic vesicle proteins within larval segmental nerves. If done correctly, all components of the nervous system, along with associated tissues such as muscles and NMJs, remain intact, undamaged, and ready to be visualized. 3rd instar larvae carrying various mutations are dissected, fixed, incubated with synaptic vesicle antibodies, visualized and compared to wild type larvae. This procedure can be adapted for several different synaptic or neuronal antibodies and changes in the distribution of a variety of proteins can be easily observed within larval segmental nerves.

Visualization of Larval Segmental Nerves in 3rd Instar Drosophila Larval Preparations

Drosophila melanogaster larvae provide an ideal model system to investigate the mechanisms of axonal transport within larval segmental nerves. Using this procedure, 3rd instar larvae carrying various mutations can be compared to wild type larvae.

La visualización de larvas Nervios segmentarios en 3 Rd Instar Drosophila Preparación de larvas

Drosophila melanogaster is emerging as a powerful model system for studying the development and function of the nervous system, particularly because of ...

Investigación

Neurociencias

Mapping and Application of Enhancer-trap Flippase Expression in Larval and Adult Drosophila CNS

The Gal4/ UAS binary method is powerful for gene and neural circuitry manipulation in Drosophila. For most neurobiological studies, however, Gal4 expression is rarely tissue-specific enough to allow for precise correlation of the circuit with behavioral readouts. To overcome this major hurdle, we recently developed the FINGR method to achieve a more restrictive Gal4 expression in the tissue of interest. The FINGR method has three components: 1) the traditional Gal4/UAS system; 2) a set of FLP/FRT-mediated Gal80 converting tools; and 3) enhancer-trap FLP (ET-FLP). Gal4 is used to define the primary neural circuitry of interest. Paring the Gal4 with a UAS-effector, such as UAS-MJD78Q or UAS-Shits, regulates the neuronal activity, which is in turn manifested by alterations in the fly behavior. With an additional UAS-reporter such as UAS-GFP, the neural circuit involved in the specific behavior can be simultaneously mapped for morphological analysis. For Gal4 lines with broad expression, Gal4 expression can be restricted by using two complementary Gal80-converting tools: tubP&gt;Gal80&gt; ('flip out') and tubP&gt;stop&gt;Gal80 ('flip in'). Finally, investigators can turn Gal80 on or off, respectively, with the help of tissue-specific ET-FLP. In the flip-in mode, Gal80 will repress Gal4 expression wherever Gal4 and ET-FLP intersect. In the flip-out mode, Gal80 will relieve Gal4 repression in cells in which Gal4 and FLP overlap. Both approaches enable the restriction of the number of cells in the Gal4-defined circuitry, but in an inverse pattern. The FINGR method is compatible with the vast collection of Gal4 lines in the fly community and highly versatile for traditional clonal analysis and for neural circuit mapping. In this protocol, we demonstrate the mapping of FLP expression patterns in select ET-FLPx2 lines and the effectiveness of the FINGR method in photoreceptor cells. The principle of the FINGR method should also be applicable to other genetic model organisms in which Gal4/UAS, Gal80, and FLP/FRT are used.

Mapping and Application of Enhancer-trap Flippase Expression in Larval and Adult Drosophila CNS

We describe a Flippase-induced intersectional Gal80/Gal4 repression (FINGR) method, allowing tissue-specific FLP to determine Gal80 expression patterns. Wherever Gal4 and FLP overlap, Gal4 expression is turned on (Gal80 flipped out) or off (Gal80 flipped in). The FINGR method is versatile for clonal analysis and neural circuit mapping.

La cartografía y la aplicación de potenciador de la trampa de expresión Flippase en larvas y adultos Drosophila SNC

The Gal4/ UAS binary method is powerful for gene and neural circuitry manipulation in Drosophila. For most neurobiological studies, however, Gal4 ...

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of Larval, Pupal and Adult Drosophila Retinas

The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster consists of about 750 ommatidia (unit eyes). Each ommatidium is composed of about 20 cells, including lens-secreting cone cells, pigment cells, a bristle cell and eight photoreceptors (PRs) R1-R8 2. The PRs have specialized microvillar structures, the rhabdomeres, which contain light-sensitive pigments, the Rhodopsins (Rhs). The rhabdomeres of six PRs (R1-R6) form a trapezoid and contain Rh1 3 4. The rhabdomeres of R7 and R8 are positioned in tandem in the center of the trapezoid and share the same path of light. R7 and R8 PRs stochastically express different combinations of Rhs in two main subtypes5: In the 'p' subtype, Rh3 in pR7s is coupled with Rh5 in pR8s, whereas in the 'y' subtype, Rh4 in yR7s is associated with Rh6 in yR8s 6 7 8.
Early specification of PRs and development of ommatidia begins in the larval eye-antennal imaginal disc, a monolayer of epithelial cells. A wave of differentiation sweeps across the disc9 and initiates the assembly of undifferentiated cells into ommatidia10-11. The 'founder cell' R8 is specified first and recruits R1-6 and then R7 12-14. Subsequently, during pupal development, PR differentiation leads to extensive morphological changes 15, including rhabdomere formation, synaptogenesis and eventually rh expression.
In this protocol, we describe methods for retinal dissections and immunohistochemistry at three defined periods of retina development, which can be applied to address a variety of questions concerning retinal formation and developmental pathways. Here, we use these methods to visualize the stepwise PR differentiation at the single-cell level in whole mount larval, midpupal and adult retinas (Figure 1).

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of Larval, Pupal and Adult Drosophila Retinas

The Drosophila retina is a crystal-like lattice composed of a small number of cell types that are generated in a stereotyped manner 1. Its amenability to sophisticated genetic analysis allows the study of complex developmental programs. This protocol describes dissections and immunohistochemistry of retinas at three discrete developmental stages, with a focus on photoreceptor differentiation.

La disección e inmunohistoquímica de larva, pupa y adulto<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Retinas

The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster consists of about 750 ommatidia (unit eyes). Each ommatidium is composed of about 20 cells, including ...

Functional Analysis of the Larval Feeding Circuit in Drosophila

The serotonergic feeding circuit in Drosophila melanogaster larvae can be used to investigate neuronal substrates of critical importance during the development of the circuit. Using the functional output of the circuit, feeding, changes in the neuronal architecture of the stomatogastric system can be visualized. Feeding behavior can be recorded by observing the rate of retraction of the mouth hooks, which receive innervation from the brain. Locomotor behavior is used as a physiological control for feeding, since larvae use their mouth hooks to traverse across an agar substrate. Changes in feeding behavior can be correlated with the axonal architecture of the neurites innervating the gut. Using immunohistochemistry it is possible to visualize and quantitate these changes. Improper handling of the larvae during behavior paradigms can alter data as they are very sensitive to manipulations. Proper imaging of the neurite architecture innervating the gut is critical for precise quantitation of number and size of varicosities as well as the extent of branch nodes. Analysis of most circuits allow only for visualization of neurite architecture or behavioral effects; however, this model allows one to correlate the functional output of the circuit with the impairments in neuronal architecture.

Functional Analysis of the Larval Feeding Circuit in Drosophila

The feeding circuit in Drosophila melanogaster larvae serves a simple yet powerful model that allows changes in feeding rate to be correlated with alterations in the stomatogastric neural circuitry. This circuit is composed of central serotonergic neurons that send projections to the mouth hooks as well as the foregut.

Análisis funcional del circuito de alimentación de las larvas en Drosophila</i

The serotonergic  feeding circuit in Drosophila  melanogaster larvae can be used to investigate neuronal substrates of  critical importance during the ...

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given their relevance to development and disease, understanding the mechanisms that govern asymmetric stem cell division has been a robust area of study. Because they are genetically tractable and undergo successive rounds of cell division about once every hour, the stem cells of the Drosophila central nervous system, or neuroblasts, are indispensable models for the study of stem cell division. About 100 neural stem cells are located near the surface of each of the two larval brain lobes, making this model system particularly useful for live imaging microscopy studies. In this work, we review several approaches widely used to visualize stem cell divisions, and we address the relative advantages and disadvantages of those techniques that employ dissociated versus intact brain tissues. We also detail our simplified protocol used to explant whole brains from third instar larvae for live cell imaging and fixed analysis applications.

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

This protocol details a streamlined method used to conduct live cell imaging in the context of an intact larval brain. Live cell imaging approaches are invaluable for the study of asymmetric neural stem cell divisions as well as other neurogenic and developmental processes, consistently uncovering mechanisms that were previously overlooked.

Imágenes en vivo de<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; larvales neuroblastos

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given ...

Olfactory Behaviors Assayed by Computer Tracking Of Drosophila in a Four-quadrant Olfactometer

A key challenge in neurobiology is to understand how neural circuits function to guide appropriate animal behaviors. Drosophila melanogaster is an excellent model system for such investigations due to its complex behaviors, powerful genetic techniques, and compact nervous system. Laboratory behavioral assays have long been used with Drosophila to simulate properties of the natural environment and study the neural mechanisms underlying the corresponding behaviors (e.g. phototaxis, chemotaxis, sensory learning and memory)1-3. With the recent availability of large collections of transgenic Drosophila lines that label specific neural subsets, behavioral assays have taken on a prominent role to link neurons with behaviors4-11. Versatile and reproducible paradigms, together with the underlying computational routines for data analysis, are indispensable for rapid tests of candidate fly lines with various genotypes. Particularly useful are setups that are flexible in the number of animals tested, duration of experiments and nature of presented stimuli. The assay of choice should also generate reproducible data that is easy to acquire and analyze. Here, we present a detailed description of a system and protocol for assaying behavioral responses of Drosophila flies in a large four-field arena. The setup is used here to assay responses of flies to a single olfactory stimulus; however, the same setup may be modified to test multiple olfactory, visual or optogenetic stimuli, or a combination of these. The olfactometer setup records the activity of fly populations responding to odors, and computational analytical methods are applied to quantify fly behaviors. The collected data are analyzed to get a quick read-out of an experimental run, which is essential for efficient data collection and the optimization of experimental conditions.

Olfactory Behaviors Assayed by Computer Tracking Of Drosophila in a Four-quadrant Olfactometer

We describe here a behavioral setup and data analysis method for assaying olfactory responses of up to 100 vinegar flies (Drosophila melanogaster). This system may be used with single or multiple olfactory stimuli, and adaptable for optogenetic activation or silencing of neuronal subsets.

Comportamientos olfativas ensayó mediante seguimiento informático de<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; En un olfatómetro de cuatro cuadrantes

A key challenge in neurobiology is to understand how neural circuits function to guide appropriate animal behaviors. Drosophila melanogaster is an ...

Removal of Drosophila Muscle Tissue from Larval Fillets for Immunofluorescence Analysis of Sensory Neurons and Epidermal Cells

Drosophila larval dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a popular model for investigating mechanisms of neuronal morphogenesis. Da neurons develop in communication with the epidermal cells they innervate and thus their analysis benefits from in situ visualization of both neuronally and epidermally expressed proteins by immunofluorescence. Traditional methods of preparing larval fillets for immunofluorescence experiments leave intact the muscle tissue that covers most of the body wall, presenting several challenges to imaging neuronal and epidermal proteins. Here we describe a method for removing muscle tissue from Drosophila larval fillets. This protocol enables imaging of proteins that are otherwise obscured by muscle tissue, improves signal to noise ratio, and facilitates the use of super-resolution microscopy to study da neuron development.

Removal of Drosophila Muscle Tissue from Larval Fillets for Immunofluorescence Analysis of Sensory Neurons and Epidermal Cells

Studies of neuronal morphogenesis using Drosophila larval dendritic arborization (da) neurons benefit from in situ visualization of neuronal and epidermal proteins by immunofluorescence. We describe a procedure that improves immunofluorescence analysis of da neurons and surrounding epidermal cells by removing muscle tissue from the larval body wall.

Eliminación de<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Tejido muscular de larvas Filetes para el análisis de inmunofluorescencia de las neuronas sensoriales y las células epidérmicas

Drosophila larval dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a popular model for investigating mechanisms of neuronal morphogenesis. Da neurons develop in ...

Focal Macropatch Recordings of Synaptic Currents from the Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction

Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an excellent model system to study glutamatergic synaptic transmission. We describe the technique of focal macropatch recordings of synaptic currents from visualized boutons at the Drosophila larval NMJ. This technique requires customized fabrication of recording micropipettes, as well as a compound microscope equipped with a high magnification, long-distance water immersion objective, differential interference contrast (DIC) optics, and a fluorescent attachment. The recording electrode is positioned on the top of a selected synaptic bouton visualized with DIC optics, epi-fluorescence, or both. The advantage of this technique is that it allows monitoring the synaptic activity of a limited number of sites of release. The recording electrode has&#160;a diameter of several microns, and the release sites positioned outside of the electrode rim do&#160;not significantly affect the recorded currents. The recorded synaptic currents have fast kinetics and can be readily resolved. These advantages are especially important for the studies of mutant fly lines with enhanced spontaneous or asynchronous synaptic activity.

Focal Macropatch Recordings of Synaptic Currents from the Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction

Synaptic currents can be recorded focally from visualized synaptic boutons at the Drosophila third instar larvae neuromuscular junction. This technique enables monitoring the activity of a single synaptic bouton.

Grabaciones de Macropatch focal de corrientes sinápticas de la Unión Neuromuscular larvaria de Drosophila

Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an excellent model system to study glutamatergic synaptic transmission. We describe the technique of focal ...

Tracking Drosophila Larval Behavior in Response to Optogenetic Stimulation of Olfactory Neurons

The ability of insects to navigate toward odor sources is based on the activities of their first-order olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). While a considerable amount of information has been generated regarding ORN responses to odorants, the role of specific ORNs in driving behavioral responses remains poorly understood. Complications in behavior analyses arise due to different volatilities of odorants that activate individual ORNs, multiple ORNs activated by single odorants, and the difficulty in replicating naturally observed temporal variations in olfactory stimuli using conventional odor-delivery methods in the laboratory. Here, we describe a protocol that analyzes Drosophila larval behavior in response to simultaneous optogenetic stimulation of its ORNs. The optogenetic technology used here allows for specificity of ORN activation and precise control of temporal patterns of ORN activation. Corresponding larval movement is tracked, digitally recorded, and analyzed using custom written software. By replacing odor stimuli with light stimuli, this method allows for a more precise control of individual ORN activation in order to study its impact on larval behavior. Our method could be further extended to study the impact of second-order projection neurons (PNs) as well as local neurons (LNs) on larval behavior. This method will thus enable a comprehensive dissection of olfactory circuit function and complement studies on how olfactory neuron activities translate in to behavior responses.

Tracking Drosophila Larval Behavior in Response to Optogenetic Stimulation of Olfactory Neurons

This protocol analyzes navigational behavior of Drosophila larva in response to simultaneous optogenetic stimulation of its olfactory neurons. Light of 630 nm wavelength is used to activate individual olfactory neurons expressing a red-shifted channel rhodopsin. Larval movement is simultaneously tracked, digitally recorded, and analyzed using custom-written software.

Seguimiento de comportamiento larvario de Drosophila en respuesta a la estimulación de la Optogenetic de las neuronas olfatorias

The ability of insects to navigate toward odor sources is based on the activities of their first-order olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). While a ...

Metabolic Analysis of Drosophila melanogaster Larval and Adult Brains

This protocol describes a method for measuring the metabolism in Drosophila melanogaster larval and adult brains. Quantifying metabolism in whole organs provides a tissue-level understanding of energy utilization that cannot be captured when analyzing primary cells and cell lines. While this analysis is ex vivo, it allows for the measurement from a number of specialized cells working together to perform a function in one tissue and more closely models the in vivo organ. Metabolic reprogramming has been observed in many neurological diseases, including neoplasia, and neurodegenerative diseases. This protocol was developed to assist the D. melanogaster community&#39;s investigation of metabolism in neurological disease models using a commercially available metabolic analyzer. Measuring metabolism of whole brains in the metabolic analyzer is challenging due to the geometry of the brain. This analyzer requires samples to remain at the bottom of a 96-well plate. Cell samples and tissue punches can adhere to the surface of the cell plate or utilize spheroid plates, respectively. However, the spherical, three-dimensional shape of D. melanogaster brains prevents the tissue from adhering to the plate. This protocol requires a specially designed and manufactured micro-tissue restraint that circumvents this problem by preventing any movement of the brain while still allowing metabolic measurements from the analyzer&#39;s two solid-state sensor probes. Oxygen consumption and extracellular acidification rates are reproducible and sensitive to a treatment with metabolic inhibitors. With a minor optimization, this protocol can be adapted for use with any whole tissue and/or model system, provided that the sample size does not exceed the chamber generated by the restraint. While basal metabolic measurements and an analysis after a treatment with mitochondrial inhibitors are described within this protocol, countless experimental conditions, such as energy source preference and rearing environment, could be interrogated.

Metabolic Analysis of Drosophila melanogaster Larval and Adult Brains

We present a protocol for measuring oxygen consumption and extracellular acidification in Drosophila melanogaster larval and adult brains. A metabolic analyzer is utilized with an adapted and optimized protocol. Micro-tissue restraints are a critical component of this protocol and were designed and created specifically for their use in this analysis.

Análisis metabólico del cerebro adulto y Larval de Drosophila melanogaster

This protocol describes a method for measuring the metabolism in Drosophila melanogaster larval and adult brains. Quantifying metabolism in whole organs ...