Name: effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation on the primary motor cortex by online combined approach with transcranial magnetic stimulation
Uploaded: 2017-09-23T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation at JoVE

This study was supported by Russian Science Foundation grant (contract number: 17-11-01273). Special thanks to Andrey Afanasov and colleagues from Multifunctional Innovation Centre for Television Technics (National Research University, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation) for video recording and video editing.

All procedures were approved by the local research ethics committee of the Higher School of Economics (HSE), Moscow, with consent from all participants.
NOTE: Participants must report no history of implanted metal devices, neurological or psychiatric disease, drug abuse or alcoholism. TMS is used according to the most recent safety guidelines20. Subjects must be fully informed of the nature of the research and sign an informed consent form before starting the experiment...

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This approach represents a unique opportunity to directly test online effects of tACS of the primary motor cortex by measuring corticospinal output through MEPs recording. However, the placement of the TMS coil over the tACS electrode represents a critical step that should be accurately performed. Therefore, we would firstly suggest experimenters find a target point by single pulse TMS, then mark it on the scalp and, only after that, place the tACS electrode over the hotspot. Moreover, the availability of a neuronavigati...

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) is a neuromodulatory technique which allows the modification of neuronal states through different current waveforms1. Among different types of tES, transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) enables the delivery of sinusoidal external oscillatory potentials in a specific frequency range and the modulation of physiological neural activity underlying perceptual, motor and cognitive processes2. Using tACS, it is possible to investigate potential causal links between endogenous oscillatory activity and brain processes.
In vivo, it has been shown that spiking neural activity is synchronized at different driving frequencies, suggesting that neuronal firing can be entrained by electrically applied fields3. In animal models, weak sinusoidal tACS entrains the discharged frequency of the widespread cortical neuronal pool4. In humans, tACS combined with online Electroencephalography (EEG) allows the induction of the so-called &#34;Entrainment&#34; effect on endogenous oscillatory activity by interacting with brain oscillations in a frequency-specific manner5. However, combining tACS with neuroimaging methods for a better understanding of the online mechanisms is still questionable because of AC-induced artifacts6. In addition, it is not possible to directly record the EEG signal over the stimulated target area without using a ring-like electrode which is a questionable solution7. Thus, there is a lack of systematic studies on this topic.
So far, there is no clear evidence about the lasting effects of tACS after stimulation cessation. Only a few studies have shown weak and unclear after-effects of tACS on the motor system8. Moreover, EEG evidence is still not clear about the after-effects of tACS9. On the other hand, most tACS studies showed prominent online effects10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18, which are difficult to measure at a physiological level because of technical constraints. Thus, the overall goal of our method is to provide an alternative approach to test online and frequency-dependent effects of tACS on the motor cortex (M1) by delivering single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS). TMS allows researchers to &#34;probe&#34; the physiological state of the human motor cortex19. Moreover, by recording Motor Evoked Potentials (MEP) on the subject&#39;s contralateral hand, we can investigate the effects of the ongoing tACS11. This approach lets us accurately monitor changes in corticospinal excitability by measuring MEP amplitude during online electrical stimulation delivered at different frequencies in an artifact-free fashion. In addition, this approach can also test online effects of any other waveform of tES.
To demonstrate the combined tACS-TMS effects, we will show the protocol by applying 20 Hz AC stimulation over the primary motor cortex (M1) while online neuronavigated single pulse TMS is delivered interspersed by random intervals from 3 to 5 s in order to test M1 cortical excitability.

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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">BrainStim, high-resolution transcranial stimulator</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">E.M.S., Bologna, Italy</td>
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			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:213px;">Pair of 1,5m cables for connection of conductive silicone electrodes</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">E.M.S., Bologna, Italy</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">EMS-CVBS15</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">Reusable conductive silicone electrodes 50x50mm</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">E.M.S., Bologna, Italy</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">Reusable spontex sponge for electrode 50x100mm</td>
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			<td style="width:136px;">E.M.S., Bologna, Italy</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">MagPro X100 MagOption - transcranial magnetic stimulator</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">MagVenture, Farum, Denmark</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">8-shaped coil MC-B65-HO-2</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">MagVenture, Farum, Denmark</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">Chair with neckrest</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">MagVenture, Farum, Denmark</td>
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			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:213px;">Localite TMS Navigator - Navigation platform, Premium edition</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Localite, GmbH, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">21223</td>
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			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:213px;">Localite TMS Navigator - MR-based software, import data for morphological MRI (DICOM, NifTi)</td>
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			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:213px;">MagVenture 24.8 coil tracker, Geom 1</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Localite, GmbH, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">5221</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:213px;">Electrode wires for surface EMG</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">&#160;EBNeuro, Italy&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">6515</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">Surface Electrodes for EEG/EMG</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">&#160;EBNeuro, Italy&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">6515</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">BrainAmp ExG amplifier - bipolar amplifier&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Brain Products, GmbH, Germany</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">&#160;BrainVision Recorder 1.21.0004&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Brain Products, GmbH, Germany</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:213px;">Nuprep Skin Prep Gel&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Weaver and Company, USA</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:213px;">Syringes</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:213px;">Sticky tape</td>
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			<td style="width:157px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:213px;">NaCl solution</td>
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effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation on the primary motor cortex by online combined approach with transcranial magnetic stimulation

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific frequency and in turn modulate ongoing cortical oscillatory activity. This neurotool allows the establishment of a causal link between endogenous oscillatory activity and behavior. Most of the tACS studies have shown online effects of tACS. However, little is known about the underlying action mechanisms of this technique because of the AC-induced artifacts on Electroencephalography (EEG) signals. Here we show a unique approach to investigate online physiological frequency-specific effects of tACS of the primary motor cortex (M1) by using single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to probe cortical excitability changes. In our setup, the TMS coil is placed over the tACS electrode while Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) are collected to test the effects of the ongoing M1-tACS. So far, this approach has mainly been used to study the visual and motor systems. However, the current tACS-TMS setup can pave the way for future investigations of cognitive functions. Therefore, we provide a step-by-step manual and video guidelines for the procedure.

The first evidence of a tACS/TMS combined approach was shown by Kanai et al. in 2010. In that study, the authors applied tACS over the primary visual cortex (V1) and demonstrated a frequency-specific modulation of the visual cortical excitability measured by online TMS-induced phosphene perception15. A more refined version of the protocol was adopted to investigate a physiological modulation of the motor cortex excitability by Feurra et al. in 201...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation at JoVE

Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) allows the modulation of cortical excitability in a frequency-specific fashion. Here we show a unique approach which combines online tACS with single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in order to "probe" cortical excitability by means of Motor Evoked Potentials.

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to assess modulation of ongoing effects of transcranial alternated current stimulation by means of single path transcranial magnetic path stimulation in a novel online combined approach. Transcranial electrical stimulation is a neuromodulatory technique that affects neuronal states through different current waveform. It is commonly used in neuroscience to investigate brain motor and cognitive functions.The most used approaches are based on direct current stimulation, random noise, and alternating current stimulation, which are able to induce changes in neuron activity. Both inside and outside the neurons, causing alteration of resting membrane potential and consequently modifying neuronal synaptic efficiency. TACS allow us to deliver sinusoidal external oscillatory potential in a specific frequency range.By inducing the so-called entrainment effect on the endogenous oscillatory activity. Here we are introducing a novel method which combine TACS and single path CMS during ongoing stimulation of the primary motor cortex. The method allow us to test online alternating current stimulation effects on primary motor cortex by means of single pulse TMS induced motor evoked potential.We are going to show an entire set of equipment needed to run an online combined TACS-TMS protocol by stimulation of the primary motor cortex. The list of equipment includes an electrical stimulation device which can generate electrical alternated current, for example BrainStim. Connected by two-surface saline soaked sponge electrodes size five to seven centimeters.In order to minimize skin sensation, the electrodes are completely saturated with the saline solution to keep impedance below 10 kiloOhm throughout the whole stimulation session. The target electrode is placed over the scalp corresponding to the primary motor cortex hotspot by using specific elastic straps while the reference electrode is placed over the ipsilateral shoulder by using sticky tape in a so-called monopole montage. In humans, oscillations in different frequencies reflect different behavior and cognitive processes that underlie different states of neural network activity.As typically measured by encephalography or by magneto-encephalography. Oscillations in the human brain are ranging from ultra-slow to ultra-fast oscillations. There are usually simultaneously present and can modulate and interact with each other.However, the link between oscillatory activity and brain processes has always been established by correlational methods. Therefore the issue of whether brain oscillations directly reflect fundamental mechanism in cortical information processing, or just an epiphenomenon is still unresolved. By using TACS we can causally modulate brain oscillations in a frequency-specific fashion, and in turn influence physiological neuronal activity linked to resting state, perceptual and cognitive processes.To set up TCS protocol using the BrainStim device, first check the battery status. Then stimulation parameters are manipulated by our special software. Frequency, duration, shape of the current.And transferred to the device by Bluetooth connection. By using the software, open a new session and manage a new protocol or stimulation. For example, the protocol will be named as Beta.Set the frequency of stimulation in our case it will be 20Hz, tune the waveform as sinusoidal, and set the total duration of the stimulation protocol, for example 600 seconds. Finally set the intensity of stimulation at 1 milliAmp while offset, fade in, fade out, and fade is set at zero. Then when the Bluetooth function is activated on the device, upload the protocol from the software to the stimulator.Then proceed by checking whether the protocol has been successfully transferred to the device. Now move to the TMS part. First place electrodes for a surface EMG to measure motor lock potentials by single pulse TMS.Clean the skin using a cleaning scrub under all the electrodes to achieve a low skin impedance, below 10 kiloOhm. Here we took a first dorsal interressus muscle and used and used a bipolar belly tendon montage. Put active electrode on the muscle, reference electrode on the bone, two centimeters distally and ground electrode more proximally on the arm.Motor lock potentials are measured by argentum, argentum chloride electrodes connected to the BrainAmp DC amplifier by a connector box. We are using frameless TMS navigation system LocalEye TMS navigator to achieve proper positioning of the TMS coil. First we place the tracking sensors on the front of the participant.For TMS stimulation we are using magnetic stimulator in a bi-phasic regime and an H-shaped 75 millimeter swing red stimulation coil. Then using the video of participant's structural T-one MRI, and perform a current illustration of the participant's head in the 3-D MRI head model by navigation system. After that, accurately position the coil over the primary motor area of the head, the so-called motor knob region.Then start to test single pass TMS motor lock potentials. Once an optimal hotspot for the studied hand model cortical representation is found, this location is marked for the subsequent TCS target electrode placement. Adjust carefully the first elastic strap on the head with respect to the head center's position.Then take the target electrode position with the second stripe. Once TCS electrodes are placed both on the skull and on the ipsilateral shoulder, proceed to connect them to the stimulator. Before starting the stimulation session, ensure that position of the target electrode is centered over the marked hotspot by visual inspection.Then place the TMS coil over the TCS electrodes by readjusting intensity and orientation using neuro-navigation in order to find the hotspot again. At this stage, method of the resting model threshold for this new combined TCS-TMS montage by taking into account the thickness of the target electrode. Set the intensity of stimulation along the experiment at 110%of their resting motor threshold.Most of the TCS studies showed prominent online effects, at the same time, there is still no clear evidence about long-lasting effects of TCS after stimulation cessation. Only few studies in the literature showed weak and unclear after-effects with respect to those ones who used online TCS. EG evidence is not clear about TCS after-effects either.In vivo it was shown that spike in activity is synchronized with different driving frequencies suggesting that neuronal firing can be entrained by electrically applied fields. Thus in animal models weak sinusoidal TCS entrains the discharged frequency of the widespread cortical-neuronal pulse. In humans recent evidence showed that online TCS can induce entrainment effect on the EG signature.However, the TCS EG approach is still questionable, firstly because of the AC-induced artifacts and secondly because it's not practically possible to directly capture the EG signal of the stimulated area. Such combined TCS-TMS montage allows to observe especially for the sensorimotor system the online frequency specific TCS effects on the cortical spinal output by using as a probe single pass TMS of the primary motor cortex. Thus, start the 20Hz electrical stimulation protocol while delivering online TMS single pulses interspersed by random intervals, from three to five seconds.For instance, we can show the increase of motor lock potential amplitudes during online 20Hz TCS with respect to 10Hz or sham stimulation. On this picture you can see an example of the experimental design where TMS coil is placed over the target TCS electrode. This experiment target red electrodes are placed on the left motor cortex and the right parietal cortex.The blue reference electrode is placed on the midline corresponding to PZ position of the 1020 international EG system. The coil is held on the sponge electrode placed over the left motor cortex. The human motor cortex addressed has an activity at about 20Hz.Frequent collaborators provided the crucial evidence of 20Hz activity at rest in humans by showing the online increase of the cortico-spinal excitability while stimulation was applied at 20Hz. On the graph the Y-axis represents the mean MEP amplitude as measured by TMS single pulse while the TCS stimulation was ongoing. The X-axis represents different stimulation frequencies.Only TCS delivered at 20Hz on the motor cortex increased the corticospinal output. Whereas there was no effect of the stimulation on other frequencies or other stimulation of the parietal cortex. This was the first evidence of an online frequency-specific effect of TCS on the motor cortex measured by TACS, TMS combined approach.The rationale of combining the use of TMS and TACS lies on different information that they convey. By recording motor evoked potentials on the contralateral hand to the primary motor cortex we can check the artifact-free effects of ongoing TCS. This allow us to accurately monitor changes in cortical excitability by motor evoked potentials during electrical stimulation delivered at different frequencies in an artifact-free fashion.This new approach can be used to test online effect of any other forms of transcranial electrical stimulation.

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A Novel Approach for Documenting Phosphenes Induced by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Stimulation of the human visual cortex produces a transient perception of light, known as a phosphene. Phosphenes are induced by invasive electrical stimulation of the occipital cortex, but also by non-invasive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)1 of the same cortical regions. The intensity at which a phosphene is induced (phosphene threshold) is a well established measure of visual cortical excitability and is used to study cortico-cortical interactions, functional organization 2, susceptibility to pathology 3,4 and visual processing 5-7. Phosphenes are typically defined by three characteristics: they are observed in the visual hemifield contralateral to stimulation; they are induced when the subject s eyes are open or closed, and their spatial location changes with the direction of gaze 2. Various methods have been used to document phosphenes, but a standardized methodology is lacking. We demonstrate a reliable procedure to obtain phosphene threshold values and introduce a novel system for the documentation and analysis of phosphenes. We developed the Laser Tracking and Painting system (LTaP), a low cost, easily built and operated system that records the location and size of perceived phosphenes in real-time. The LTaP system provides a stable and customizable environment for quantification and analysis of phosphenes.

Phosphenes are transient percepts of light that can be induced by applying Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to visually sensitive regions of cortex. We demonstrate a standard protocol for determining the phosphene threshold value and introduce a novel method for quantifying and analyzing perceived phosphenes.

Stimulation of the human visual cortex produces a transient perception of light, known as a phosphene. Phosphenes are induced by invasive electrical ...

Combining Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and fMRI to Examine the Default Mode Network

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful rest."1,2,3 It is thought the default mode network corresponds to self-referential or "internal mentation".2,3
It has been hypothesized that, in humans, activity within the default mode network is correlated with certain pathologies (for instance, hyper-activation has been linked to schizophrenia 4,5,6 and autism spectrum disorders 7 whilst hypo-activation of the network has been linked to Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases 8). As such, noninvasive modulation of this network may represent a potential therapeutic intervention for a number of neurological and psychiatric pathologies linked to abnormal network activation. One possible tool to effect this modulation is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized magnetic field pulses.9
In order to explore the default mode network's propensity towards and tolerance of modulation, we will be combining TMS (to the left inferior parietal lobe) with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Through this article, we will examine the protocol and considerations necessary to successfully combine these two neuroscientific tools.

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the combination of TMS and fMRI to examine the effects of brain stimulation on the default network.

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful ...

Electrode Positioning and Montage in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that has been intensively investigated in the past decade as this method offers a non-invasive and safe alternative to change cortical excitability2. The effects of one session of tDCS can last for several minutes, and its effects depend on polarity of stimulation, such as that cathodal stimulation induces a decrease in cortical excitability, and anodal stimulation induces an increase in cortical excitability that may last beyond the duration of stimulation6. These effects have been explored in cognitive neuroscience and also clinically in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders &#x2013; especially when applied over several consecutive sessions4. One area that has been attracting attention of neuroscientists and clinicians is the use of tDCS for modulation of pain-related neural networks3,5. Modulation of two main cortical areas in pain research has been explored: primary motor cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex7. Due to the critical role of electrode montage, in this article, we show different alternatives for electrode placement for tDCS clinical trials on pain; discussing advantages and disadvantages of each method of stimulation.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is an established technique to modulate cortical excitability1,2. It has been used as an investigative tool in neuroscience due to its effects on cortical plasticity, easy operation, and safe profile. One area that tDCS has been showing encouraging results is pain alleviation 3-5.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that has been intensively investigated in the past decade as this method offers a ...

The Use of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy as a Tool for the Measurement of Bi-hemispheric Transcranial Electric Stimulation Effects on Primary Motor Cortex Metabolism

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a neuromodulation technique that has been increasingly used over the past decade in the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders such as stroke and depression. Yet, the mechanisms underlying its ability to modulate brain excitability to improve clinical symptoms remains poorly understood 33. To help improve this understanding, proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) can be used as it allows the in vivo quantification of brain metabolites such as &#947;-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate in a region-specific manner 41. In fact, a recent study demonstrated that 1H-MRS is indeed a powerful means to better understand the effects of tDCS on neurotransmitter concentration 34. This article aims to describe the complete protocol for combining tDCS (NeuroConn MR compatible stimulator) with 1H-MRS at 3 T using a MEGA-PRESS sequence. We will describe the impact of a protocol that has shown great promise for the treatment of motor dysfunctions after stroke, which consists of bilateral stimulation of primary motor cortices 27,30,31. Methodological factors to consider and possible modifications to the protocol are also discussed.

This article aims to describe a basic protocol for combining transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) measurements to investigate the effects of bilateral stimulation on primary motor cortex metabolism.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a neuromodulation technique that has been increasingly used over the past decade in the treatment of ...

Remotely Supervised Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: An Update on Safety and Tolerability

The remotely supervised tDCS (RS-tDCS) protocol enables participation from home through guided and monitored self-administration of tDCS treatment while maintaining clinical standards. The current consensus regarding the efficacy of tDCS is that multiple treatment sessions are needed to observe targeted behavioral reductions in symptom burden. However, the requirement for patients to travel to clinic daily for stimulation sessions presents a major obstacle for potential participants, due to work or family obligations or limited ability to travel. This study presents a protocol that directly overcomes these obstacles by eliminating the need to travel to clinic for daily sessions.
This is an updated protocol for remotely supervised self-administration of tDCS for daily treatment sessions paired with a program of computer-based cognitive training for use in clinical trials. Participants only need to attend clinic twice, for a baseline and study-end visit. At baseline, participants are trained and provided with a study stimulation device, and a small laptop computer. Participants then complete the remainder of their stimulation sessions at home while they are monitored via videoconferencing software.
Participants complete computerized cognitive remediation during stimulation sessions, which may serve a therapeutic role or as a &#34;placeholder&#34; for other computer-based activity. Computers are enabled for real-time monitoring and remote control by study staff.
Outcome measures that assess feasibility and tolerance are administered remotely with the aid of visual analogue scales that are presented onscreen. Following completion of all RS-tDCS sessions, participants return to clinic for a study end visit in which all study equipment is returned.
Results support the safety, feasibility, and scalability of the RS-tDCS protocol for use in clinical trials. Across 46 patients, 748 RS-tDCS sessions have been completed. This protocol serves as a model for use in future clinical trials involving tDCS.

This manuscript provides an updated remote supervision protocol that enables participation in transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) clinical trials while receiving treatment sessions from home. The protocol has been successfully piloted in both patients with multiple sclerosis and Parkinson&#39;s disease.

The remotely supervised tDCS (RS-tDCS) protocol enables participation from home through guided and monitored self-administration of tDCS treatment while ...

Online Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Protocol for Measuring Cortical Physiology Associated with Response Inhibition

We describe the development of a reproducible, child-friendly motor response inhibition task suitable for online Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) characterization of primary motor cortex (M1) excitability and inhibition. Motor response inhibition prevents unwanted actions and is abnormal in several neuropsychiatric conditions. TMS is a non-invasive technology that can quantify M1 excitability and inhibition using single- and paired-pulse protocols and can be precisely timed to study cortical physiology with high temporal resolution. We modified the original Slater-Hammel (S-H) stop signal task to create a &#34;racecar&#34; version with TMS pulses time-locked to intra-trial events. This task is self-paced, with each trial initiating after a button push to move the racecar towards the 800 ms target. GO trials require a finger-lift to stop the racecar just before this target. Interspersed randomly are STOP trials (25%) during which the dynamically adjusted stop signal prompts subjects to prevent finger-lift. For GO trials, TMS pulses were delivered at 650 ms after trial onset; whereas, for STOP trials, the TMS pulses occurred 150 ms after the stop signal. The timings of the TMS pulses were decided based on electroencephalography (EEG) studies showing event-related changes in these time ranges during stop signal tasks. This task was studied in 3 blocks at two study sites (n=38) and we recorded behavioral performance and event-related motor-evoked potentials (MEP). Regression modelling was used to analyze MEP amplitudes using age as a covariate with multiple independent variables (sex, study site, block, TMS pulse condition [single- vs. paired-pulse], trial condition [GO, successful STOP, failed STOP]). The analysis showed that TMS pulse condition (p&#60;0.0001) and its interaction with trial condition (p=0.009) were significant. Future applications for this online S-H/TMS paradigm include the addition of simultaneous EEG acquisition to measure TMS-evoked EEG potentials. A potential limitation is that in children, the TMS pulse sound could&#160;affect behavioral task performance.

We describe an experimental procedure to quantify excitability and inhibition of primary motor cortex during a motor response inhibition task by using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation throughout the course of a Stop Signal Task.

We describe the development of a reproducible, child-friendly motor response inhibition task suitable for online Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) ...

Combined Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Electroencephalography of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive method that produces neural excitation in the cortex by means of brief, time-varying magnetic field pulses. The initiation of cortical activation or its modulation depends on the background activation of the neurons of the cortical region activated, the characteristics of the coil, its position and its orientation with respect to the head. TMS combined with simultaneous electrocephalography (EEG) and neuronavigation (nTMS-EEG) allows for the assessment of cortico-cortical excitability and connectivity in almost all cortical areas in a reproducible manner. This advance makes nTMS-EEG a powerful tool that can accurately assess brain dynamics and neurophysiology in test-retest paradigms that are required for clinical trials. Limitations of this method include artifacts that cover the initial brain reactivity to stimulation. Thus, the process of removing artifacts may also extract valuable information. Moreover, the optimal parameters for dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPFC) stimulation are not fully known and current protocols utilize variations from the motor cortex (M1) stimulation paradigms. However, evolving nTMS-EEG designs hope to address these issues. The protocol presented here introduces some standard practices for assessing neurophysiological functioning from stimulation to the DLPFC that can be applied in patients with treatment resistant psychiatric disorders that receive treatment such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), magnetic seizure therapy (MST) or electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

The protocol presented here is for TMS-EEG studies utilizing intracortical excitability test-retest design paradigms. The intent of the protocol is to produce reliable and reproducible cortical excitability measures for assessing neurophysiological functioning related to therapeutic interventions in the treatment of neuropsychiatric diseases such as major depression.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive method that produces neural excitation in the cortex by means of brief, time-varying magnetic ...

The Combined Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Robotic Therapy for the Upper Limb

Neurologic disorders such as stroke and cerebral palsy are leading causes of long-term disability and can lead to severe incapacity and restriction of daily activities due to lower and upper limb impairments. Intensive physical and occupational therapy are still considered main treatments, but new adjunct therapies to standard rehabilitation that may optimize functional outcomes are being studied.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that polarizes underlying brain regions through the application of weak direct currents through electrodes on the scalp, modulating cortical excitability. Increased interest in this technique can be attributed to its low cost, ease of use, and effects on human neural plasticity. Recent research has been performed to determine the clinical potential of tDCS in diverse conditions such as depression, Parkinson&#39;s disease, and motor rehabilitation after stroke. tDCS helps enhance brain plasticity and seems to be a promising technique in rehabilitation programs.
A number of robotic devices have been developed to assist in the rehabilitation of upper limb function after stroke. The rehabilitation of motor deficits is often a long process requiring multidisciplinary approaches for a patient to achieve maximum independence. These devices do not intend to replace manual rehabilitation therapy; instead, they were designed as an additional tool to rehabilitation programs, allowing immediate perception of results and tracking of improvements, thus helping patients to stay motivated.
Both tDSC and robot-assisted therapy are promising add-ons to stroke rehabilitation and target the modulation of brain plasticity, with several reports describing their use to be associated with conventional therapy and the improvement of therapeutic outcomes. However, more recently, some small clinical trials have been developed that describe the associated use of tDCS and robot-assisted therapy in stroke rehabilitation. In this article, we describe the combined methods used in our institute for improving motor performance after stroke.

The combined use of transcranial direct current stimulation and robotic therapy as an add-on for conventional rehabilitation therapy may result in improved therapeutic outcomes due to modulation of brain plasticity. In this article, we describe the combined methods used in our institute for improving motor performance after stroke.

Neurologic disorders such as stroke and cerebral palsy are leading causes of long-term disability and can lead to severe incapacity and restriction of ...

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in Mice

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique proposed as an alternative or complementary treatment for several neuropsychiatric diseases. The biological effects of tDCS are not fully understood, which is in part explained due to the difficulty in obtaining human brain tissue. This protocol describes a tDCS mouse model that uses a chronically implanted electrode allowing the study of the long-lasting biological effects of tDCS. In this experimental model, tDCS changes the cortical gene expression and offers a prominent contribution to the understanding of the rationale for its therapeutic use.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation tDCS in Mice

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a therapeutic technique proposed to treat psychiatric diseases. An animal model is essential for understanding the specific biological alterations evoked by tDCS. This protocol describes a tDCS mouse model that uses a chronically implanted electrode.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique proposed as an alternative or complementary treatment for ...

Stimulation Location Determination using a 3D Digitizer with High-Definition Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

The abundance of neuroimaging data and rapid development of machine learning has made it possible to investigate brain activation patterns. However, causal evidence of brain area activation leading to a behavior is often left missing. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), which can temporarily alter brain cortical excitability and activity, is a noninvasive neurophysiological tool used to study causal relationships in the human brain. High-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) technique that produces a more focal current compared to conventional tDCS. Traditionally, the stimulation location has been roughly determined through the 10-20 EEG system, because determining precise stimulation points can be difficult. This protocol uses a 3D digitizer with HD-tDCS to increase accuracy in determination of stimulation points. The method is demonstrated using a 3D digitizer for more accurate localization of stimulation points in the right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ).

Presented here is a protocol to achieve higher accuracy in determination of stimulation location combining a 3D digitizer with high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation.

The abundance of neuroimaging data and rapid development of machine learning has made it possible to investigate brain activation patterns. However, ...