This research was possible through funding from the University of Neuch&#226;tel. We would like to thank all the students that helped in improving this technique, namely our colleague Kevin Thievent. We would also like to thank the members of the Thomas Lab for making their laboratory available. We would like to thank Janet Teeple for her help with mosquito rearing. We would also like to thanks Loyal Hall in the laboratory of Pr. Tom Baker for his help in the preparation of the micro capillary glass tubes.

1. תמיסת מלח עבור הזרקת Dissection <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> הכן את תמיסת מלח על ידי הוספת NaCl, KCl, ו CaCl 2 למים מזוקקים כדי להשיג 1.3 מ&quot;מ NaCl, KCl 0.5 מ&quot;מ ו -0.2 מ&quot;מ CaCl 2 ב- pH = 6.8. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> הוסף 1 מ&quot;ל של פתרון ירוק מתיל 0.1% ל -99 מיליליטר של תמיסת מלח כדי לצבוע את החרוזים שקוף. זהו &quot;פתרון ההזרקה&quot; 0.001% מתיל הירוק. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> לאחר מכן, להוסיף 5 מ&quot;ל של תמיסת ירוק 0.1% מתיל ל -45 מ&quot;ל של תמיסת מלח. 0.01% מתיל ירוק זה &quot;פתרון לנתיחה&quot; הוא 10 פעמים יותר מרוכז בירוק מתיל כדי להקל על הצבעוניות של חרוזים לבין ההתבוננות בהן במהלך הניתוח. הערה: סנן לעקר את החיץ במידת הצורך. </li></ol> 2. הכנת נימים <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> צינורות זכוכית microcapillary חום המשיך כדי לקבל עצה טובה מאוד מעט גדולה יותר את החרוזים הקטנים (φ = 40 מיקרומטר) 42. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> פתוחdjust כל נימים ידי שבירת הקצה עם פינצטה או בניסור את הקצה. </li></ol> 3. גידול נגד יתושים <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> א gambiae אחורי ב 26 ± 1 ° C, 70 ± 5% לחות יחסית, ואור hr 00:12: מחזור כהה. שמור לנשים בוגרות ולתת להם גישת פתרון סוכר 10%. </li></ol> 4. בחירות ביד עם הנימים <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> יוצקים 0.009 גרם של חרוזים טעונים שלילית (40-120 מיקרומטר קוטר) בצלחת 5 ס&quot;מ פטרי ולהוסיף 5 מ&quot;ל של 30 דקות פתרון הזרקת מראש. הערה: המטרה היא לתת צבע לצבוע את החרוזים כדי לבצע את הבחירה חרוז להזרקה קל. חיטוי חרוז אם הם לא באים בצנצנת סטרילית. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> באמצעות נימי רכוב נורה פיפטה נימים, ויזואלית לבחור את החרוז הקטן 0.1 μl של תמיסת המלח תחת מיקרוסקופ משקפת. הערה: כאשר ייחסו כמה חרוזים בו זמנית, בחר שלושה חרוזים בנפח כולל של 0.1 μl.</li></ol> טיפול נגד יתושים 5. הרכבת חיסון <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> שימוש aspirator חרקים, למקם כל יתוש בתוך שפופרת 50 מ&quot;ל. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> צ&#39;יל כל יתוש בקצרה על ידי הנחת הצינור בקרח כתוש (2-5 דקות). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> מניחים יתוש על צידו הימני מתחת למיקרוסקופ המשקפת. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> תחת סטראו, לחסן יתוש עם הנימים ידי פירסינג בחוזקה דרך הצד השמאלי של לציפורן חלל בית החזה ולאחר מכן הזרקת הנוזל ואת החרוז. הערה: יש להיזהר שלא לפגוע שרירי התעופה ידי החזקת הנימים כמו בניצב היתוש ככל האפשר. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> הסר את הנימים. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> בעזרת מלקחיים אנטומולוגיה נוצה, במקום כל נקבה בנפרד בכוס פלסטיק 180 מ&quot;ל מכוסה בכילה נגד יתושים; לתת להם גישה פתרון סוכר 10%. הערה: שים לב נדרש עם תמיסת הסוכר, כמו היתוש עלול להיתקע על טיפות תמיסת סוכר. </li></ol> 6. נגד יתושיםDissection וצילום חרוז <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> בדקו אם יש היתושים חיים 24 שעות לאחר החיסון. אם כן, לבדוק את מצבם ולשמור רק היתושים מסוגלים לעוף. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> להקפיא יתושים אלה ב -20 ° C. הערה: הם יכולים להיות כל הזמן כמה ימים עד חודשים לפני לנתיחה, במידת הצורך. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> הסר את הכנפיים של היתושים באמצעות פינצטה תחת מיקרוסקופ המשקפת בהגדלה 32x. תקן את הכנפיים על גבי שקופיות זכוכית עם סרט שקוף. רשום את הקוד בשימוש עבור כל יתוש פרט. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> שים את שקופיות הזכוכית בתוך סורק ולסרוק אותם 1,200 dpi. הערה: בדוק שהקוד קריא לכל יתוש פרט. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> בשקופית מיקרוסקופ זכוכית בתמיסה לנתיחה, להשתמש במלקחיים כדי להפריד את החזה מהראש והבטן. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> פתח את בית החזה עם מלקחיים כדי לאחזר את החרוזים. הערה: חרוזים כי לא לעבור הבטן, אינם באים במגע אחד עם השני ורובם לצוף בחופשיות tהוא hemolymph. היזהר שלא לשבור את החרוז עם מלקחיים, כמו חרוז הלא melanized עשוי להיות קשה למצוא. חכה 1 עד 5 דקות עבור חרוזים להשיג צבע. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> מעביר את חרוזי טיפה של פתרון לנתיחה בשקופית מיקרוסקופ זכוכית, לפני צילום התמונה. הערה: אין צורך לשטוף את החרוזים. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> באמצעות מיקרוסקופ מצויד במצלמת, לקחת תמונה דיגיטלית של כל חרוז בכל הגדרת תאורה סטנדרטית בהגדלת 400X. הערה: אין לשנות את התאורה בין התמונות האחרות על מנת לאפשר ההשוואה שלהם. </li></ol> 7. ניתוח תמונה: חרוז melanization <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> פתח את תוכנת ניתוח תמונה. לחץ על &quot;קובץ&quot; ולאחר מכן על &quot;פתח&quot; כדי למצוא תמונת חרוז. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> לחץ על &quot;לנתח&quot;. לחץ על &quot;מדידות להגדיר.&quot; סמן את התיבה &quot;אומר ערך אפור&quot; בחלון &quot;מדידות סט&quot;. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> לחץ על סמל כלי הבחירה מעגל. בחר את ההיקף החרוז; להשאר בלצד החרוז ולהימנע ההילה זוהרת סביבו. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> הקישו על תפריט &quot;לנתח&quot;. לחץ על &quot;קנה מידה.&quot; השג את הערך אפור הממוצע וגודל שטח החתך של החרוז. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> כדי לקבל את ערכן melanization של כל חרוז, לבצע את הפעולה הבאה באמצעות תוכנת מחשבון או מחשבון: &quot;256 - כלומר ערך אפור.&quot; מדד melanization הוא ערך בין 0 ל 256, עם 0 מייצג תמונה לבנה לגמרי. </li></ol></li></ol>

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C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+and+indirect+immunosuppression+by+a+malaria+parasite+in+its+mosquito+vector.">Direct and indirect immunosuppression by a malaria parasite in its mosquito vector.</a> P Roy Soc B-Biol Sci. 271 (1548), 1611-1615 (2004).</li><li>Sacks, D., Sher, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evasion+of+innate+immunity+by+parasitic+protozoa.">Evasion of innate immunity by parasitic protozoa.</a> Nat immunol. 3 (11), 1041-1047 (2002).</li><li>Zambrano-Villa, S., Rosales-Borjas, D., Carrero, J. C., Ortiz-Ortiz, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+protozoan+parasites+evade+the+immune+response.">How protozoan parasites evade the immune response.</a> Trend Parasito. 18 (6), 272-278 (2002).</li><li>Damian, R. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parasite+immune+evasion+and+exploitation:+reflections+and+projections.">Parasite immune evasion and exploitation: reflections and projections.</a> Parasitology. 115, S169-S175 (1997).</li><li>Schmid-Hempel, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parasite+immune+evasion:+a+momentous+molecular+war.">Parasite immune evasion: a momentous molecular war.</a> Trend ecol evol. 23 (6), 318-326 (2008).</li><li>Schmid-Hempel, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immune+defence,+parasite+evasion+strategies+and+their+relevance+for+&amp;#34;macroscopic+phenomena&amp;#34;+such+as+virulence.">Immune defence, parasite evasion strategies and their relevance for &amp;#34;macroscopic phenomena&amp;#34; such as virulence.</a> P Roy Soc B-Biol Sci. 364 (1513), 85-98 (2009).</li><li>Stearns, S. C., Koella, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+evolution+of+phenotypic+plasticity+in+life+history+traits-+predictions+of+reaction+norms+for+age+and+size+at+maturity.">The evolution of phenotypic plasticity in life history traits- predictions of reaction norms for age and size at maturity.</a> Evolution. 40 (5), 893-913 (1986).</li><li>Stearns, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Life-history+tactics:+a+review+of+the+ideas.">Life-history tactics: a review of the ideas.</a> Q rev biol. 51 (1), 3-47 (1976).</li><li>Valtonen, T. M., Kleino, A., Ramet, M., Rantala, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Starvation+Reveals+Maintenance+Cost+of+Humoral+Immunity.">Starvation Reveals Maintenance Cost of Humoral Immunity.</a> Evol Biol. 37 (1), 49-57 (2010).</li><li>Sheldon, B. C., Verhulst, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ecological+immunology:+costly+parasite+defences+and+trade-offs+in+evolutionary+ecology.">Ecological immunology: costly parasite defences and trade-offs in evolutionary ecology.</a> Trend Ecol Evo. 11 (8), 317-321 (1996).</li><li>Graham, A. L., Allen, J. E., Read, A. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolutionary+causes+and+consequences+of+immunopathology.">Evolutionary causes and consequences of immunopathology.</a> Annu Rev Ecol Evol S. 36, 373-397 (2005).</li><li>Best, A., Long, G., White, A., Boots, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+implications+of+immunopathology+for+parasite+evolution.">The implications of immunopathology for parasite evolution.</a> P Roy Soc B-Biol Sci. 279 (1741), 3234-3240 (2012).</li><li>Cator, L. J., George, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=34;Manipulation&amp;#34;+without+the+parasite:+altered+feeding+behaviour+of+mosquitoes+is+not+dependent+on+infection+with+malaria+parasites.">34;Manipulation&amp;#34; without the parasite: altered feeding behaviour of mosquitoes is not dependent on infection with malaria parasites.</a> P Roy Soc B-Biol Sci. 280 (1763), 20130711 (2013).</li><li>Voordouw, M. J., Lambrechts, L., Koella, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=No+maternal+effects+after+stimulation+of+the+melanization+response+in+the+yellow+fever+mosquito+Aedes+aegypti.">No maternal effects after stimulation of the melanization response in the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti.</a> Oikos. 117 (8), 1269-1279 (2008).</li><li>Paskewitz, S., Riehle, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Response+of+Plasmodium+refractory+and+susceptible+strains+of+Anopheles+gambiae+to+inoculated+Sephadex+beads.">Response of Plasmodium refractory and susceptible strains of Anopheles gambiae to inoculated Sephadex beads.</a> Dev comp immunol. 18 (5), 369-375 (1994).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

טכניקת ההזרקה זו שימושית כדי לעורר וללמוד את התגובה melanization יתושים. לדוגמא, כאן אנו בחנו את ההשפעה של עומס הגירויים החיסוני. השלב הקריטי בהליך זה הוא לחסן היתוש כראוי. כל נזק מוגזם לשרירים הטיסה או היתוש עצמו עשוי למנוע את היתושים ?...

חרקים להסתמך על המערכת החיסונית כדי להגן על עצמם מפני טפילים ופתוגנים 1 - 3 המפרות דרך לציפורן שלהם או midgut שלהם האפיתל 4. בשנת יתושים, התגובות הללו הם יעילים כנגד חיידקים 5, וירוסים 6, נמטודות filarial 7, ו טפילי מלריה 1,8,9. בשנת יתושים, תגובה חיסונית מפתח היא אנקפסולציה של חלקיקים זרים עם מלנין 10 - 12. אנקפסולציה זה עשוי לקרות midgut או ב hemolymph במחזור מערכת 10 - 12. בתגובה melanization זוהי תוצאה של-phenoloxidase פרו מפל 10 - 12, וזה יכול לגרום למוות של טפילים או phagocytosis שלהם. בשנת יתושים בוגרים, שבו מספר תאי hemocytes מוגבל, melanization היא תגובת לחות, כמו נגד טפילי Plasmodium או נמטודות filarial 7.בחלק וחרקים אחרים, זה ישירות התאים hemocytes כי להתאסף סביב הטפיל כדי melanize אותם 7. חוץ מזה, מלנין חיוני גם כמה תהליך פיסיולוגי אחר כמו ייצור ביצים ופצעים לציפורן ריפוי 7. הגירוי של מערכת חיסונית משמש ככלי ללמוד חסינויות חרקים בכמה מערכות מודל בריאות חקלאית וציבורי 13 - 18. הוא משמש אנופלס יתושי gambiae, הווקטור הגדול של במלריה באפריקה, כדי לחקור אינטראקציות מארח טפיל 14 - 16,19. טכניקות אלו מבוססות על הקיבולת של חרקים כדי לזהות טפילים עם קולטנים זיהוי דפוסים שלהם (PRR) 2. יתושים יכולים גם לזהות מולקולות אחרות מפריעות הביולוגיה שלהם כגון דפוסים מולקולריים הקשורים הפתוגן (PAMPs), או לזהות תאים הפגומים שלהם עקב השחרור של קולגן וחומצות גרעין. תא היתושים החיסוניים כגון hemocytes משמש לגילוי 20 - 23. מסלולי האיתות החיסוניים העיקריים הם IMD, אגרה, JAK / STAT 24, והפרעת חומצה ריבונוקלאית (RNAi) 25,26. שניהם אגרה ושבילי IMD להשפיע על תגובת melanization ולתקשר עם-phenoloxidase פרו מפל 10 - 12. הכלי הסטנדרטי המשמש לעורר את תגובת melanization הוא החיסון של יתוש עם חרוז קטן לתוך hemolymph של חלל בית החזה. מידת אנקפסולציה מלנין לאחר מכן ניתן למדוד 19 לאחר אחזור חרוז באמצעות דיסקציה של היתוש. במרבית המחקרים, רק חרוז אחד שהוזרק לכל יתוש 15,16,27, אך הזרקת חרוזים יותר אפשרי על מנת ללמוד את גבולות התגובה melanization 19. חרוזים אלה מוזרקים באמצעות פתרון הזרקה (בסרום פיסיולוגי) להגביל הפרעה של פיזיולוגית היתושיםההתייבשות של היתוש 15,16,27. לצבוע מתווסף פתרון זה כדי להקל מבחר חרוז. זה אותו הדבר עבור הפתרון לנתיחה בשימוש כדי לאחזר את 15,16,27 חרוז. היתרון של יחסינו חרקים עם גירויים שאינם פתוגניים הוא היכולת להתמקד ההשפעה הישירה על התגובה החיסונית. אין תופעות סיבוך עקב פתוגניות טפילה 28, דיכוי חיסוני 29 - 31, או התחמקות חיסון 31 - 34. חוץ מזה, את ההשלכות של הגירויים על תכונות היסטורית חיים אחרות, כגון תוחלת חיים או פוריות, יכולות להיות גם למדו. לפיכך, חוקרים לומדים אקולוגיה אבולוציונית עשויים לדרוש כלים כגון 2,35,36. לדוגמא, דבורי מאותגרים חיסוניים יש תוחלת חיים מקוצרת תחת רעב. דומות השפעות שליליות של גירויים ופריסות חיסוניים נצפו דגמים חסרי חוליות שונים, ופעמים רבות תוצאה הוא קצראה תוחלת חיים או פחות רביית הצלחה 13,27,37. ניתן לבצע מחקרים כאלה בסביבות משתנות 2,4,38. גירוי החסינות היא גם לעניין את אלו מתמקדים ישירות על immunopathology 39,40. פרוטוקול זה מבוסס על החיסון של חרוזים עם יתושים כדי לעורר את תגובת melanization וישירות למדוד את כמות המלנין. זה מאפשר מחקר כמותי ואיכותי של התגובה melanization במסגרות ניסיוניות שונות. כלי כזה יכול להתארך עד הגירוי של תגובות חיסוניות אחרות, כגון תגובה אנטיבקטריאלי לחום-הרג חיידקים 41. זה גם יכול להתנהל במסגרות אקולוגית רבה.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="718">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:301px;">Microcapillary glass tubes GB120TF-10</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">science-products.com</td>
			<td style="width:84px;">GB120TF-10</td>
			<td style="width:156px;">http://www.science-products.com/Products/CatalogG/Glass/Glass.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:301px;">Microcaps Capillary pipette bulb</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Drumond</td>
			<td style="width:84px;">1-000-9000</td>
			<td style="width:156px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:301px;">negatively charged Sephadex CM C-25 beads</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Sigma-Aldrich, Steinheim, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:84px;">C25120 SIGMA</td>
			<td style="width:156px;">need few to start</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:301px;">Methyl green</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:84px;">323829 ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:156px;">need few to start</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:301px;">Software ImageJ</td>
			<td style="width:177px;">opensource</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:156px;">Version 1.47f7 or later</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

inoculating anopheles gambiae mosquitoes with beads to induce and measure the melanization immune response

הגירוי של המערכת החיסונית הוא כלי נפוץ מחקרים חסרי חוליות לבחון את היעילות ואת מנגנוני חסינות. גירוי זה מבוסס על הזרקת חלקיקים שאינם פתוגניים לתוך חרקים, שכן חלקיקי יזוהו על ידי המערכת החיסונית יניעו את הייצור של effectors החיסונית. אנו מתמקדים כאן על גירוי של התגובה melanization של היתוש אנופלס gambiae. התוצאות בתגובה melanization ב אנקפסולציה של חלקיקים זרים וטפילים בשכבה כהה של מלנין. כדי לעורר את התגובה הזאת, יתושים הם מחוסנים עם חרוזים את חלל בית החזה באמצעות צינורות זכוכית microcapillary. ואז, לאחר 24 שעות, היתושים הם גזורים כדי לאחזר את החרוזים. מידת melanization של החרוז נמדדת באמצעות תוכנת ניתוח תמונה. חרוזים לא צריכים את ההשפעות פתוגניים של טפילים, או יכולתי להתחמק או לדכא את התגובה החיסונית. זריקות אלו הן דרך צפחותמחדש יעילות חיסון ואת ההשפעה של גירויים חיסוניים על תכונות היסטורית חיים אחרות, כגון פוריות או אריכות ימים. זה לא בדיוק אותו דבר כמו ללמוד ישירות אינטראקציות המארח טפיל, אבל זה כלי מעניין ללמוד חסינות אקולוגיה אבולוציונית שלה.

<html> יתושים לא כל melanize חרוזים באותה דרך, כמו כמה חרוזים היו פחות מכוסה המלנין יותר מאחרים (איור 1). ואכן, כמה חרוזים נשאר כחולים בגלל חוסר melanization, בעוד שאחרים היו חושך מוחלט (איור 1). השווי melanization היה טופל על ידי אינטרפולציה ליניארית לער...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Inoculating Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes with Beads to Induce and Measure the Melanization Immune Response at JoVE.com

Inoculating Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes with Beads to Induce and Measure the Melanization Immune Response

Through inoculation with beads, the described technique enables the stimulation of the mosquito melanization response in the hemolymph circulating system. The amount of melanin covering the beads can be measured after dissection as a measure of the immune response.

ייחסתי<em&gt; Gambiae אנופלס</em&gt; יתושים עם חרוזים כדי לעודד ו למדוד את התגובה החיסונית melanization

The stimulation of immune responses is a common tool in invertebrate studies to examine the efficacy and the mechanisms of immunity. This stimulation is ...

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Immunology and Infection

Inoculating Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes with Beads to Induce and Measure the Melanization Immune Response

7.9K Views.  Université de Neuchâtel. Through inoculation with beads, the described technique enables the stimulation of the mosquito melanization response in the hemolymph circulating system. The amount of melanin covering the beads can be measured after dissection as a measure of the immune response.

Video: Inoculating Anopheles gambiae Mosquitoes with Beads to Induce and Measure the Melanization Immune Response

Measuring Bacterial Load and Immune Responses in Mice Infected with Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria) is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen1. Mouse studies typically employ intravenous injection of Listeria, which results in systemic infection2. After injection, Listeria quickly disseminates to the spleen and liver due to uptake by CD8&alpha;+ dendritic cells and Kupffer cells3,4. Once phagocytosed, various bacterial proteins enable Listeria to escape the phagosome, survive within the cytosol, and infect neighboring cells5. During the first three days of infection, different innate immune cells (e.g. monocytes, neutrophils, NK cells, dendritic cells) mediate bactericidal mechanisms that minimize Listeria proliferation. CD8+ T cells are subsequently recruited and responsible for the eventual clearance of Listeria from the host, typically within 10 days of infection6.
Successful clearance of Listeria from infected mice depends on the appropriate onset of host immune responses6	. There is a broad range of sensitivities amongst inbred mouse strains7,8. Generally, mice with increased susceptibility to Listeria infection are less able to control bacterial proliferation, demonstrating increased bacterial load and/or delayed clearance compared to resistant mice. Genetic studies, including linkage analyses and knockout mouse strains, have identified various genes for which sequence variation affects host responses to Listeria infection6,8-14. Determination and comparison of infection kinetics between different mouse strains is therefore an important method for identifying host genetic factors that contribute to immune responses against Listeria. Comparison of host responses to different Listeria strains is also an effective way to identify bacterial virulence factors that may serve as potential targets for antibiotic therapy or vaccine design.
We describe here a straightforward method for measuring bacterial load (colony forming units [CFU] per tissue) and preparing single-cell suspensions of the liver and spleen for FACS analysis of immune responses in Listeria-infected mice. This method is particularly useful for initial characterization of Listeria infection in novel mouse strains, as well as comparison of immune responses between different mouse strains infected with Listeria. We use the Listeria monocytogenes EGD strain15 that, when cultured on blood agar, exhibits a characteristic halo zone around each colony due to &beta;-hemolysis1 (Figure 1). Bacterial load and immune responses can be determined at any time-point after infection by culturing tissue homogenate on blood agar plates and preparing tissue cell suspensions for FACS analysis using the protocols described below. We would note that individuals who are immunocompromised or pregnant should not handle Listeria, and the relevant institutional biosafety committee and animal facility management should be consulted before work commences.

Measuring Bacterial Load and Immune Responses in Mice Infected with Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is a model organism for studying immune responses and genetic susceptibility to intracellular bacteria in mice. This method enables one to measure bacterial load and generate single-cell suspensions of the liver and spleen from mice for FACS analysis to determine changes in immune cells due to Listeria infection.

מדידת עומס בקטריאלי ותגובות החיסון של עכברים נגועים עם חיידקי ליסטריה</em

Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria) is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen1. Mouse studies typically employ intravenous injection of ...

An Introduction to Parasitic Wasps of Drosophila and the Antiparasite Immune Response

Most known parasitoid wasp species attack the larval or pupal stages of Drosophila. While Trichopria drosophilae infect the pupal stages of the host (Fig. 1A-C), females of the genus Leptopilina (Fig. 1D, 1F, 1G) and Ganaspis (Fig. 1E) attack the larval stages. We use these parasites to study the molecular basis of a biological arms race. Parasitic wasps have tremendous value as biocontrol agents. Most of them carry virulence and other factors that modify host physiology and immunity. Analysis of Drosophila wasps is providing insights into how species-specific interactions shape the genetic structures of natural communities. These studies also serve as a model for understanding the hosts' immune physiology and how coordinated immune reactions are thwarted by this class of parasites.
The larval/pupal cuticle serves as the first line of defense. The wasp ovipositor is a sharp needle-like structure that efficiently delivers eggs into the host hemocoel. Oviposition is followed by a wound healing reaction at the cuticle (Fig. 1C, arrowheads). Some wasps can insert two or more eggs into the same host, although the development of only one egg succeeds. Supernumerary eggs or developing larvae are eliminated by a process that is not yet understood. These wasps are therefore referred to as solitary parasitoids.
Depending on the fly strain and the wasp species, the wasp egg has one of two fates. It is either encapsulated, so that its development is blocked (host emerges; Fig. 2 left); or the wasp egg hatches, develops, molts, and grows into an adult (wasp emerges; Fig. 2 right). L. heterotoma is one of the best-studied species of Drosophila parasitic wasps. It is a "generalist," which means that it can utilize most Drosophila species as hosts1. L. heterotoma and L. victoriae are sister species and they produce virus-like particles that actively interfere with the encapsulation response2. Unlike L. heterotoma, L. boulardi is a specialist parasite and the range of Drosophila species it utilizes is relatively limited1. Strains of L. boulardi also produce virus-like particles3 although they differ significantly in their ability to succeed on D. melanogaster1. Some of these L. boulardi strains are difficult to grow on D. melanogaster1 as the fly host frequently succeeds in encapsulating their eggs. Thus, it is important to have the knowledge of both partners in specific experimental protocols.
In addition to barrier tissues (cuticle, gut and trachea), Drosophila larvae have systemic cellular and humoral immune responses that arise from functions of blood cells and the fat body, respectively. Oviposition by L. boulardi activates both immune arms1,4. Blood cells are found in circulation, in sessile populations under the segmented cuticle, and in the lymph gland. The lymph gland is a small hematopoietic organ on the dorsal side of the larva. Clusters of hematopoietic cells, called lobes, are arranged segmentally in pairs along the dorsal vessel that runs along the anterior-posterior axis of the animal (Fig. 3A). The fat body is a large multifunctional organ (Fig. 3B). It secretes antimicrobial peptides in response to microbial and metazoan infections.
Wasp infection activates immune signaling (Fig. 4)4. At the cellular level, it triggers division and differentiation of blood cells. In self defense, aggregates and capsules develop in the hemocoel of infected animals (Fig. 5)5,6. Activated blood cells migrate toward the wasp egg (or wasp larva) and begin to form a capsule around it (Fig. 5A-F). Some blood cells aggregate to form nodules (Fig. 5G-H). Careful analysis reveals that wasp infection induces the anterior-most lymph gland lobes to disperse at their peripheries (Fig. 6C, D).
We present representative data with Toll signal transduction pathway components Dorsal and Sp&auml;tzle (Figs. 4,5,7), and its target Drosomycin (Fig. 6), to illustrate how specific changes in the lymph gland and hemocoel can be studied after wasp infection. The dissection protocols described here also yield the wasp eggs (or developing stages of wasps) from the host hemolymph (Fig. 8).

An Introduction to Parasitic Wasps of Drosophila and the Antiparasite Immune Response

Parasitoid (parasitic) wasps constitute a major class of natural enemies of many insects including Drosophila melanogaster. We will introduce the techniques to propagate these parasites in Drosophila spp. and demonstrate how to analyze their effects on immune tissues of Drosophila larvae.

מבוא של צרעות טפיליות<em&gt; תסיסנית</em&gt; ואת התגובה החיסונית Antiparasite

Most known parasitoid wasp species attack the larval or pupal stages of Drosophila. While Trichopria drosophilae infect the pupal stages of the host (Fig. ...

Intravital Imaging of the Mouse Thymus using 2-Photon Microscopy

Two-photon Microscopy (TPM) provides image acquisition in deep areas inside tissues and organs. In combination with the development of new stereotactic tools and surgical procedures, TPM becomes a powerful technique to identify "niches" inside organs and to document cellular "behaviors" in live animals. While intravital imaging provides information that best resembles the real cellular behavior inside the organ, it is both more laborious and technically demanding in terms of required equipment/procedures than alternative ex vivo imaging acquisition. Thus, we describe a surgical procedure and novel "stereotactic" organ holder that allows us to follow the movements of Foxp3+ cells within the thymus.
Foxp3 is the master regulator for the generation of regulatory T cells (Tregs). Moreover, these cells can be classified according to their origin: ie. thymus-differentiated Tregs are called "naturally-occurring Tregs" (nTregs), as opposed to peripherally-converted Tregs (pTregs). Although significant amount of research has been reported in the literature concerning the phenotype and physiology of these T cells, very little is known about their in vivo interactions with other cells. This deficiency may be due to the absence of techniques that would permit such observations. The protocol described in this paper provides a remedy for this situation.
Our protocol consists of using nude mice that lack an endogenous thymus since they have a punctual mutation in the DNA sequence that compromises the differentiation of some epithelial cells, including thymic epithelial cells. Nude mice were gamma-irradiated and reconstituted with bone marrows (BM) from Foxp3-KIgfp/gfp mice. After BM recovery (6 weeks), each animal received embryonic thymus transplantation inside the kidney capsule. After thymus acceptance (6 weeks), the animals were anesthetized; the kidney containing the transplanted thymus was exposed, fixed in our organ holder, and kept under physiological conditions for in vivo imaging by TPM. We have been using this approach to study the influence of drugs in the generation of regulatory T cells.

We have developed novel laboratory tools and protocols for intravital imaging acquisition of the thymus. Our technique should help in the identification of &#x201C;niches&#x201D; within the thymus where T cell development occurs.

הדמיה Intravital של קורנית עכבר באמצעות 2-פוטון מיקרוסקופית

Two-photon Microscopy (TPM) provides image acquisition in deep areas inside tissues and organs. In combination with the development of new stereotactic ...

Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

A complex interaction between the immune response and host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in particular, is known to occur as a response to infection in mammals 1 and has also recently been described in Drosophila melanogaster2. It is generally accepted that sleep is beneficial to the host during an infection and that it is important for the maintenance of a robust immune system3,4. However, experimental evidence that supports this hypothesis is limited4, and the function of excess sleep during an immune response remains unclear. We have used a multidisciplinary approach to address this complex problem, and have conducted studies in the simple genetic model system, the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. We use a standard assay for measuring locomotor behavior and sleep in flies, and demonstrate how this assay is used to measure behavior in flies infected with a pathogenic strain of bacteria. This assay is also useful for monitoring the duration of survival in individual flies during an infection. Additional measures of immune function include the ability of flies to clear an infection and the activation of NF&kappa;B, a key transcription factor that is central to the innate immune response in Drosophila. Both survival outcome and bacterial clearance during infection together are indicators of resistance and tolerance to infection. Resistance refers to the ability of flies to clear an infection, while tolerance is defined as the ability of the host to limit damage from an infection and thereby survive despite high levels of pathogen within the system5. Real-time monitoring of NF&kappa;B activity during infection provides insight into a molecular mechanism of survival during infection. The use of Drosophila in these straightforward assays facilitates the genetic and molecular analyses of sleep and the immune response and how these two complex systems are reciprocally influenced.

Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

To understand a link between the immune response and behavior, we describe a method to measure locomotor behavior in Drosophila during bacterial infection as well as the ability of flies to mount an immune response by monitoring survival, bacterial load, and real-time activity of a key regulator of innate immunity, NF&kappa;B.

מדידת כמותית של התגובה החיסונית ובשינה<em&gt; דרוזופילה</em

A complex interaction between the immune response and  host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in  particular, is known ...

Quantification of the Respiratory Burst Response as an Indicator of Innate Immune Health in Zebrafish

The phagocyte respiratory burst is part of the innate immune response to pathogen infection and involves the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are toxic and function to kill phagocytized microorganisms. In vivo quantification of phagocyte-derived ROS provides information regarding an organism's ability to mount a robust innate immune response. Here we describe a protocol to quantify and compare ROS in whole zebrafish embryos upon chemical induction of the phagocyte respiratory burst. This method makes use of a non-fluorescent compound that becomes fluorescent upon oxidation by ROS. Individual zebrafish embryos are pipetted into the wells of a microplate and incubated in this fluorogenic substrate with or without a chemical inducer of the respiratory burst. Fluorescence in each well is quantified at desired time points using a microplate reader. Fluorescence readings are adjusted to eliminate background fluorescence and then compared using an unpaired t-test. This method allows for comparison of the respiratory burst potential of zebrafish embryos at different developmental stages and in response to experimental manipulations such as protein knockdown, overexpression, or treatment with pharmacological agents. This method can also be used to monitor the respiratory burst response in whole dissected kidneys or cell preparations from kidneys of adult zebrafish and some other fish species. We believe that the relative simplicity and adaptability of this protocol will complement existing protocols and will be of interest to researchers who seek to better understand the innate immune response.

The innate immune response protects organisms against pathogen infection. A critical component of the innate immune response, the phagocyte respiratory burst, generates reactive oxygen species that kill invading microorganisms. We describe a respiratory burst assay that quantifies reactive oxygen species produced when the innate immune response is chemically induced.

כימות תגובת Burst נשימה כאינדיקטור של החיסון מולדת בריאות בדג הזברה

The phagocyte respiratory burst is part of the innate immune response to  pathogen infection and involves the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ...

Using RNA-interference to Investigate the Innate Immune Response in Mouse Macrophages

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells. When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the pathogen, produce various cytokines and chemokines to recruit and stimulate other immune cells, and present antigens to stimulate the adaptive immune response. Thus, being able to efficiently manipulate macrophages with techniques such as RNA-interference (RNAi) is critical to our ability to investigate this important innate immune cell. However, macrophages can be technically challenging to transfect and can exhibit inefficient RNAi-induced gene knockdown. In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect two mouse macrophage cell lines (RAW264.7 and J774A.1) with siRNA using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System and describe procedures to maximize the effect of siRNA on gene knockdown. Moreover, the described methods are adapted to work in 96-well format, allowing for medium and high-throughput studies. To demonstrate the utility of this approach, we describe experiments that utilize RNAi to inhibit genes that regulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine production.

In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect murine macrophage cell lines with siRNAs using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System, stimulate the macrophages with lipopolysaccharide, and monitor the effects on inflammatory cytokine production.

באמצעות RNA-התערבות לחקר התגובה החיסונית המולדת בהמקרופאגים עכבר

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells.  When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the ...

The Utilization of Oropharyngeal Intratracheal PAMP Administration and Bronchoalveolar Lavage to Evaluate the Host Immune Response in Mice

The host immune response to pathogens is a complex biological process. The majority of in vivo studies classically employed to characterize host-pathogen interactions take advantage of intraperitoneal injections of select bacteria or pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in mice. While these techniques have yielded tremendous data associated with infectious disease pathobiology, intraperitoneal injection models are not always appropriate for host-pathogen interaction studies in the lung. Utilizing an acute lung inflammation model in mice, it is possible to conduct a high resolution analysis of the host innate immune response utilizing lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Here, we describe the methods to administer LPS using nonsurgical oropharyngeal intratracheal administration, monitor clinical parameters associated with disease pathogenesis, and utilize bronchoalveolar lavage fluid to evaluate the host immune response. The techniques that are described are widely applicable for studying the host innate immune response to a diverse range of PAMPs and pathogens. Likewise, with minor modifications, these techniques can also be applied in studies evaluating allergic airway inflammation and in pharmacological applications.

The host immune response to pathogen infection is a tightly regulated process. Utilizing a lipopolysaccharide lung exposure model in mice, it is possible to conduct high resolution evaluations of the complex mechanisms associated with disease pathogenesis.

הניצול של לוע התחתון Intratracheal PAMP מנהל ושטיפה ברונכואלוואולרית כדי להעריך את תגובת מארח חיסון של עכברים

The host immune response to pathogens is a complex biological process. The majority of in vivo studies classically employed to characterize host-pathogen ...

In Vitro Analysis of Myd88-mediated Cellular Immune Response to West Nile Virus Mutant Strain Infection

An attenuated West Nile virus (WNV), a nonstructural (NS) 4B-P38G mutant, induced higher innate cytokine and T cell responses than the wild-type WNV in mice. Recently, myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling was shown to be important for initial T cell priming and memory T cell development during WNV NS4B-P38G mutant infection. In this study, two flow cytometry-based methods &#8211; an in vitro T cell priming assay and an intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) &#8211; were utilized to assess dendritic cells (DCs) and T cell functions. In the T cell priming assay, cell proliferation was analyzed by flow cytometry following co-culture of DCs from both groups of mice with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) - labeled CD4+ T cells of OTII transgenic mice. This approach provided an accurate determination of the percentage of proliferating CD4+ T cells with significantly improved overall sensitivity than the traditional assays with radioactive reagents. A microcentrifuge tube system was used in both cell culture and cytokine staining procedures of the ICS protocol. Compared to the traditional tissue culture plate-based system, this modified procedure was easier to perform at biosafety level (BL) 3 facilities. Moreover, WNV- infected cells were treated with paraformaldehyde in both assays, which enabled further analysis outside BL3 facilities. Overall, these in vitro immunological assays can be used to efficiently assess cell-mediated immune responses during WNV infection.

In Vitro Analysis of Myd88-mediated Cellular Immune Response to West Nile Virus Mutant Strain Infection

Two flow cytometry-based methods &#8211; an in vitro T cell priming assay and intracellular cytokine staining were utilized to measure antigen presenting capacity of dendritic cells and antigen-specific T cell responses to a West Nile virus mutant infection in mice.

בניתוח חוץ גופייה של תיווך Myd88 הסלולרי תגובה החיסונית לוירוס הנילוס המערבי זיהום הזנים Mutant

An attenuated West Nile virus (WNV), a nonstructural (NS) 4B-P38G mutant, induced higher innate cytokine and T cell responses than the wild-type WNV in ...

Two-photon Intravital Imaging of Leukocytes During the Immune Response in Lipopolysaccharide-treated Mouse Liver

Sepsis is a type of severe infection that can cause organ failure and tissue damage. Although the mortality and morbidity rates associated with sepsis are extremely high, no direct treatment or organ-related mechanism has been examined in detail in real time. The liver is the key organ that manages toxins and infections in the human body. Herein, we aimed to perform intravital imaging of mouse liver after induction of endotoxemia in order to track the motility of immune cells, such as neutrophils and liver capsular macrophages (LCMs). Accordingly, we designed a novel surgical method for exposure of the liver with minimally invasive surgery. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a common endotoxin. Using our novel surgical approach for exposure and intravital imaging of the mouse liver, we found that neutrophil recruitment in LPS-treated LysM-green fluorescent protein (GFP) mouse liver was increased compared with that in phosphate-buffered saline-treated liver. After LPS treatment, the number of neutrophils increased significantly with time. Additionally, using CX3Cr1-GFP mice, we successfully visualized liver resident macrophages called LCMs. Therefore, to investigate the efficacy of new reagents to control immune mobility in vivo, determining the motility and morphology of neutrophils and LCMs in the liver may allow us to identify therapeutic effect in organ failure and tissue damage caused by leukocytes activation in sepsis.

We established a novel surgical protocol for two-photon imaging of live mice liver with minimal invasion. With this technique, we identified the detailed structure of the liver during lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxemia. We anticipate that this method may be utilized to determine the effectiveness of various reagents treatment to hepatic leukocyte migration.

שני הפוטונים הדמיה Intravital של לויקוציטים במהלך התגובה החיסונית בכבד עכבר שטופלו ליפופוליסכריד

Sepsis is a type of severe infection that can cause organ failure and tissue damage. Although the mortality and morbidity rates associated with sepsis are ...

A Mouse Model to Assess Innate Immune Response to Staphylococcus aureus Infection

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)&#160;infections, including methicillin resistant stains, are an enormous burden on the healthcare system. With incidence rates of S. aureus infection climbing annually, there is a demand for additional research in its&#160;pathogenicity. Animal models of infectious disease advance our understanding of the host-pathogen response and lead to the development of effective therapeutics. Neutrophils play a primary role in the innate immune response that controls S. aureus infections by forming an abscess to wall off the infection and facilitate bacterial clearance; the number of neutrophils that infiltrate an S. aureus skin infection often correlates with disease outcome. LysM-EGFP mice, which possess the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) inserted in the Lysozyme M (LysM) promoter region (expressed primarily by neutrophils), when used in conjunction with in vivo whole animal fluorescence imaging (FLI) provide&#160;a means of quantifying neutrophil emigration noninvasively and longitudinally into wounded skin. When combined with a bioluminescent S. aureus strain and sequential in vivo whole animal bioluminescent imaging (BLI), it is possible to longitudinally monitor both the neutrophil recruitment dynamics and in vivo bacterial burden at the site of infection in anesthetized mice from onset of infection to resolution or death. Mice are more resistant to a number of virulence factors produced by S. aureus that facilitate effective colonization and infection in humans. Immunodeficient mice provide a more sensitive animal model to examine persistent S. aureus infections and the ability of therapeutics to boost innate immune responses. Herein, we characterize responses in LysM-EGFP mice that have been bred to MyD88-deficient mice (LysM-EGFP&#215;MyD88-/- mice) along with wild-type LysM-EGFP mice to investigate S. aureus skin wound infection. Multispectral simultaneous detection enabled study of neutrophil recruitment dynamics by using in vivo FLI, bacterial burden by using in vivo BLI, and wound healing longitudinally and noninvasively over time.

A Mouse Model to Assess Innate Immune Response to Staphylococcus aureus Infection

An approach is described for real-time detection of the innate immune response to cutaneous wounding and Staphylococcus aureus infection of mice. By comparing LysM-EGFP mice (which possess fluorescent neutrophils) with a LysM-EGFP crossbred immunodeficient mouse strain, we advance our understanding of infection and the development of approaches to combat infection.

דגם העכבר כדי להעריך מולדת התגובה החיסונית לזיהום Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)&#160;infections, including methicillin resistant stains, are an enormous burden on the healthcare system. With incidence ...