optogenetic electrophysiology recording of cells with light-dependent ion channels

Optogenetic Electrophysiology Recording of Cells with Light-Dependent Ion Channels

To begin, seal the measuring chamber with silicon to prevent leakage of the external buffer. Then, place one coverslip into the chamber and close it. Fill the chamber carefully with extracellular buffer to prevent the cells from detaching. Then, place the measuring chamber under the microscope using the 40x objective for cell visualization.
Next, put an agar bridge over the bath electrode and place it into the chamber together with the fluid level sensor and the perfusion outlet of the bath handler. Exchange the extracellular solution twice with 1 milliliter of fresh external solution to remove the residual culture medium and the detached cells. Bring the cells into focus and search for a transfected cell, which needs to be isolated from other cells. Then, use a triple band filter set and orange light to excite and visualize mCherry.
Mount the pipette on the pipette holder, and apply some positive pressure to prevent tip clogging. Locate the tip of the patch pipette under the microscope and navigate it close to the cell using the micromanipulator.
Within the data acquisition software, start the membrane test in Bath mode and apply a voltage step. Check if the pipette resistance is in the desired range of 1.3 to 3.0 megaohms. Then, zero the offset currents and adjust the pipette potential by turning the pipette offset knob on the amplifier.
To establish a patch in the whole-cell configuration, slowly approach the cell with the patch pipette from the top and release the positive pressure right before touching the cell. Compensate the pipette capacitance by turning the pipette capacitance compensation knob to get a flat response of the test pulse.
Switch the membrane test to Cell mode. Then, rupture the patch without destroying the seal by applying short pulses of negative pressure or negative pressure with increasing strength to obtain whole-cell conformation.
Start series resistance compensation by setting the two whole-cell parameters, cell capacitance and series resistance. Record light-induced currents at different holding potentials. This figure shows that during the illumination with green light, PSACR1 features a fast transient current which rapidly decays to a stationary current level.

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1. Setup Prior to Recordings
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the recording solutions with ion concentrations as indicated in Table 1.&#8203;
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare 15 mL of 2 M stock solutions in ultrapure water for MgCl2, CaCl2, KCl and CsCl.</li>
		<li>Weigh the solid components for 100 mL of the intracellular and 500 mL of the extracellular buffered solutions according to Table 1 into separate beakers and add the respective amount of the prepared stock solutions afterward. For example, for the intracellular buffer, use 0.3803 g (10 mM) EGTA(ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid), 0.2383 g (10 mM) HEPES(4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid) and 0.6428 g (110 mM) NaCl and add 100 &#181;L of the 2 M MgCl2 and CaCl2 and 50 &#181;L of the 2 M KCl and CsCl stock solutions.</li>
		<li>Add ultrapure water and carefully adjust pH using acids and bases, which do not interfere with the measurement, i.e. are not conducted by the ChR(Channelrhodopsins), such as citric acid and N-methyl-D-glucamine (NMG+).</li>
		<li>Adjust the osmolarity to 290 mOsm for the intracellular and to 320 mOsm for the extracellular solutions with glucose. 
		Note: Slightly hypoosmotic intracellular solutions increase the success rate of patching.</li>
		<li>Sterile filter all solutions through 0.22-&#181;m filters. Store solutions at 4 &#176;C for two weeks or freeze at -20 &#176;C for long-term storage.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Calculate liquid junction potentials and prepare recording protocols. 
	NOTE: Change of extracellular chloride concentration after establishing whole-cell configuration causes a significant liquid junction potential (LJP) that has to be corrected. LJPs can be directly measured or calculated, here, the latter option is used. In this protocol, online correction will be used, demanding one recording protocol for each external buffer. However, for a bigger set of external solutions, a post-correction of LJP is recommended to avoid false correction.
	<ol>
		<li>Open the junction potential calculator (JPC) and open the &#39;New Experiment&#39; dialogue. Then select &#34;Patch-clamp measurements&#34;. Select &#34;whole-cell measurements&#34;, and &#34;Standard salt-solution electrode&#34; and enter a temperature of 25 &#176;C. Between each step, go forward by accepting the selection by pressing the &#34;next&#34; button. 
		&#8203;NOTE: Experiments are performed at a room temperature of 25 &#176;C in an air-conditioned laboratory. Ensure that buffer solutions have room temperature before starting experiments. To vary the sample temperature an incubation stage or chamber can be used. Bath temperature can be frequently measured with a thermometer.</li>
		<li>Add all individual anion and cation concentrations of the pipetted solution and the high chloride buffer according to the concentrations listed in Table 1. 
		NOTE: The JPC will calculate a LJP of -0.5 mV for the starting conditions.</li>
		<li>Click &#34;New Bath Solution&#34; to enter the anionic and cationic composition of the low chloride buffer. 
		NOTE: The JPC will now calculate a new LJP of +12.6 mV according to the changed extracellular recording solution.</li>
		<li>Prepare two LJP-corrected protocols for the two measuring conditions by subtracting the calculated LJP from the applied holding potential; -0.5 mV for the high and +12.6 mV for the low chloride external solutions. Thus the protocols start with -79.5 mV (high chloride) and -92.6 mV (low chloride), respectively to obtain an LJP-corrected starting holding potential of -80 mV in both cases. 
		NOTE: The following steps apply to the data acquisition software mentioned in the material list.</li>
		<li>Open the protocol editor in the acquisition software. From the &#34;Mode&#34; menu, select &#34;Episodic stimulation&#34; and include 7 sweeps.</li>
		<li>Switch to the &#34;Waveform&#34; menu in the editor and include a 200 ms period with 0 mV holding potential followed by a 2 s period with varying holding potential starting at -79.5 mV for high chloride. Include a &#34;Delta level&#34; of 20 mV for the second period to increase the holding potential by 20 mV in each sweep.</li>
		<li>Within the voltage steps of the waveform editor, apply a 500 ms period of illumination with 540 nm light (3.10 mW/mm&#178;). To do so, change the &#34;digital bit pattern&#34; of the connected shutter that controls the light source to be active 500 ms after the second period described above (see 1.2.6). 
		NOTE: The light intensity can influence biophysical properties of channel currents like amplitude or inactivation. Therefore, light power densities should always be reported. To measure the light power after passing through all optics and the coverslip, use a calibrated optometer. To calculate the power density, determine the illuminated field of the objective by an object micrometer and divide the measured light power by the determined illuminated field.</li>
		<li>Save the protocol for the high chloride extracellular solution. Modify the protocol and replace the first level holding potential by -92.6 mV (low external chloride). Save this second protocol to measure the low chloride extracellular condition.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Lysine-coating of glass coverslips as per adapted protocol.&#8203;
	<ol>
		<li>Place several 100 cover slips in a glass petri dish and add 250 mL HCl (1 N).</li>
		<li>Place the petri dish with the cover slips on a linear shaker. Shake at 120 rpm for 72 h to clean the coverslips, and afterward, rinse with ultrapure water to neutralize the pH.</li>
		<li>Soak these in a small volume of 95% ethanol for further cleaning. 
		NOTE: Clean cover slips can be stored in 70% ethanol before proceeding. Work under a laminar flow hood for the following steps.</li>
		<li>Using a Bunsen burner and tweezers, flame each coverslip and transfer it into a new petri dish.</li>
		<li>Incubate the glass coverslips with a sterile 50 &#181;g/mL poly-D-lysine solution for at least 1 h (or overnight) at room temperature while shaking with a linear shaker at 150 rpm.</li>
		<li>Wash the coverslips with ultrapure water to remove excess poly-D-lysine.</li>
		<li>Spread the cover slips on sterile paper to dry for 10 min, and expose them to UV (Ultraviolet)light for sterilization (at least 20 min).</li>
		<li>Collect the coverslips into a sterile petri dish covered in aluminum foil until use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare DNA of the PsACR1 gene fused to mCherry using standard molecular biology techniques.&#8203;
	<ol>
		<li>Clone the human codon-optimized gene sequence encoding PsACR1 into a peGFP-C1 plasmid (CMV (Cytomegalovirus) promotor, kanamycin resistance) in frame with the mCherry fluorophore using restriction enzymes or other established cloning methods. 
		Note: Other fluorophores can be used as well, but make sure to have the corresponding filter sets available to observe their fluorescence under the microscope in the setup.</li>
		<li>Transform the plasmid DNA into chemocompetent XL1Blue E. coli cells via heat shock as per standard protocol and plate them on agar plates (30 &#181;g/mL kanamycin). Grow the plated bacteria over night at 37 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>The next day, inoculate 4 mL lysogeny broth medium supplemented with 30 &#181;g/mL kanamycin with cells from single colonies and incubate them overnight at 37 &#176;C and 180 rpm in an incubator.</li>
		<li>After overnight incubation, purify the plasmid DNA from the cultures using a commercially available kit according to the instructions of the manufacturer.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Seed the cells 
	NOTE: Perform steps under a laminar flow hood.
	<ol>
		<li>Place up to three lysine-coated glass coverslips side by side in a 35-mm petri dish. 
		NOTE: Gently press them against the bottom of the dish to prevent slipping onto each other.</li>
		<li>Seed 1.5 x 105 HEK (human embryonic kidney cells)cells in 2 mL standard Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10 % fetal bovine serum (FBS) in each dish.</li>
		<li>Supplement all-trans retinal at a final concentration of 1 &#181;M. Grow the cells for at least one day before proceeding with step 1.6.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Transiently transfect the cells via lipofection.
	<ol>
		<li>For each dish of cells, prepare a solution of 2 &#181;g of plasmid DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) in 250 &#181;L DMEM without FBS and 6 &#181;L transfection reagent.</li>
		<li>After 15 min of incubation, gently (dropwise) add the solution to the cells.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare agar bridges
	<ol>
		<li>Add 0.75 g agarose to 50 mL sterile sodium chloride solution (140 mM) and dissolve it by heating in a microwave. 
		NOTE: 2 - 3 M KCl for agar bridge preparation further reduces LJP due to higher concentration (e.g. constant diffusion from the bridge) and equal mobility of K+ and Cl- ions, but was avoided to minimize ion-(especially Cl-) leakage into the bath solution.</li>
		<li>Fill 10 &#181;L pipette tips (or a small diameter hose) with the liquid agarose solution using a syringe. 
		NOTE: Avoid air bubbles in the bridge.</li>
		<li>After the agar bridges have been cooled and solidified, store them in a sterile 140 mM sodium chloride solution.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare recording and bath electrodes.&#8203;
	<ol>
		<li>Remove silver wires from the bath and recording electrode of the patch-clamp setup.</li>
		<li>Polish the wires with sandpaper to remove silver chloride from previous experiments. Immerse the clean silver wire in 3 M KCl and connect it to the positive pole of a 1.5 V battery for electrolytic coating with silver chloride. 
		&#8203;NOTE: A lab power supply can be used instead of a battery.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pull low-resistance patch pipettes (1.5-3.0 M&#937;) from glass capillaries with a micropipette puller and fire polish them. Store pipettes dust-free for the day of measurement.</li>
	<li>Turn on all setup components to heat up to working temperature 30 min prior to recordings. Ensure that buffers are at room temperature.</li>
</ol>
2. Selectivity Measurements
<ol>
	<li>Start the recordings 24 to 48 h after transient transfection of the cells.</li>
	<li>Place one coverslip in the measuring chamber and seal it with silicon to prevent leakage of the external buffer. Store the petri dish with the other coverslips in an incubator for the next set of experiments.</li>
	<li>Carefully fill the chamber with extracellular buffer (high [Cl-]) to prevent cell detaching, then place it under the microscope and use the 40X objective to visualize cells.</li>
	<li>Put an agar bridge over the bath electrode and place it into the chamber together with the fluid level sensor and the perfusion outlet of the bath handler.</li>
	<li>Exchange the extracellular solution twice with 1 mL of fresh external solution (high [Cl-]) to remove residual culture medium and detached cells.</li>
	<li>Bring the cells into focus and search for a transfected (fluorescent) cell, which needs to be isolated from other cells. Use a triple-band filter-set and orange light (590 nm; bandwidth 15 nm; 100% intensity) to excite and visualize mCherry. 
	NOTE: HEK cells can be electrically coupled to their neighbors by gap junctions resulting in low membrane resistance in the whole-cell configuration.</li>
	<li>Fill one of the pulled pipettes with intracellular solution and remove air bubbles by flipping the pipette several times.</li>
	<li>Mount the pipette on the pipette holder and apply some positive pressure to prevent clogging of the tip.</li>
	<li>Locate the tip of the patch pipette under the microscope and navigate it close to the cell using the micromanipulator. 
	NOTE: The following steps apply to the amplifier, data acquisition and evaluation software mentioned in the material list.</li>
	<li>Start the &#34;membrane test&#34; in the data acquisition software and apply a voltage step (test pulse; e.g. 5 mV for 10 ms, baseline at 0 mV), manually or automatically via specified software using &#34;bath mode&#34; while running &#34;membrane test&#34; in the data acquisition software.</li>
	<li>Check that the pipette resistance is in the desired range (1.5-3.0 M&#937;).</li>
	<li>Zero offset currents by adjusting the pipette potential by turning the pipette offset knob at the amplifier while working in &#34;bath mode&#34; of the &#34;membrane test&#34;.</li>
	<li>Establish a patch in the whole-cell configuration. 
	NOTE: The following steps require application of positive and negative pressure delivered to the side port of the used pipette holder. This can be done by using either a syringe, via a mouth piece or an electronically controlled pressure regulator. In this protocol positive and negative pressure is applied via a mouth piece.
	<ol>
		<li>Slowly approach the cell with the patch pipette from the top and relieve the positive pressure right before touching it. 
		&#8203;NOTE: When the tip is close to the cell, the resistance will rise slightly; this is indicated by a reduced size of the test pulse.</li>
		<li>Change the &#34;membrane test&#34; from &#34;bath mode&#34; to &#34;patch mode&#34; thus the holding potential to the cells&#39; expected resting potential (-30 to -40 mV).</li>
		<li>In some cases the cell-attached configuration forms itself after release of the positive pressure. If not, gently apply negative pressure to assist gigaseal formation. 
		NOTE: Cell-attached configuration is established when the test pulse is reduced to two small capacitive peaks at the beginning and end of the pulse and the membrane resistance is in the G&#937; range; negative voltages up to -60 mV might facilitate gigaseal formation.</li>
		<li>Compensate the pipette capacitance by turning the &#34;pipette capacitance compensation&#34; knobs to get a flat response of the test pulse.</li>
		<li>Rupture the patch without destroying the seal by applying short pulses of negative pressure or negative pressure with increasing strength, to obtain whole-cell conformation. 
		NOTE: Successful transition from cell-attached to whole-cell configuration is indicated by an increase of the capacitive peaks.</li>
		<li>Apply series resistance compensation by setting whole-cell parameter and compensation adjustments of the used amplifier for accurate clamping of the membrane potential to the desired holding voltage.
		<ol>
			<li>Switch the &#34;membrane test&#34; to &#34;whole-cell&#34; mode, in the &#34;Series resistance compensation&#34; panel turn on &#34;prediction&#34; and &#34;correction&#34; up to 90% avoiding overshots and oscillation of the capacitive response, turn the whole-cell compensation switch on and adjust whole cell parameters with the appropriate front-panel knobs (&#34;whole-cell capacity&#34; and &#34;series resistance&#34;) of the amplifier in an iterative way to obtain an ideally flat test seal response. 
			NOTE: For detailed description of series resistance compensation and correction refer to the amplifier manual or guideline as this procedure varies among different manufactures.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>After establishing whole-cell configuration, wait at least 2 min before recording to ensure sufficient replacement of intracellular solution through the patch pipette.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Record light-induced currents at different holding potentials by using the protocols that were set up previously (in 1.2).</li>
	<li>Exchange the extracellular buffer to low [Cl-] in the chamber at least five times without destroying the patch and record another current-voltage relation (cf. step 1.2) at the new chloride concentration. 
	NOTE: A perfusion system for automated buffer exchange facilitates this process but is not necessary.</li>
	<li>Repeat 2.15. for every ionic condition to be tested, but repeatedly check the quality of the patch between the measurements by a &#34;membrane test&#34; described above. 
	NOTE: To guaranty accurate membrane voltage and stable intracellular ion composition membrane resistance should be above 500 M&#937; whereas access resistance should not surpass 10 M&#937;, see. 2.12.6). Do not forget to switch the whole-cell parameter compensation off for the membrane test.</li>
	<li>Repeat 2.2. to 2.15. for several cells, but take a new cover slip for each test series to ensure healthiness of cells.</li>
</ol>
Table 1: Ionic Composition of the Buffered Solutions. Composition of intracellular (intra.) and extracellular (extra.) buffers for chloride selectivity experiments in HEK cells. Abbreviations used: ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA),4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES) and aspartate (ASP). All concentrations are in mM.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>intra.</td>
			<td>extra.1</td>
			<td>extra.2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>high chloride</td>
			<td>low chloride</td>
			<td>low chloride</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>c [mM]</td>
			<td>c [mM]</td>
			<td>c [mM]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na-ASP</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>140</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>110</td>
			<td>140</td>
			<td>0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CsCl</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>1</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>10</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>0</td>
			<td>0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH</td>
			<td>7.2</td>
			<td>7.2</td>
			<td>7.2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>osmolarity</td>
			<td>290 mOsm</td>
			<td>320 mOsm</td>
			<td>320 mOsm</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK293 cells</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>85120602</td>
			<td>Human embryonic kidney cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Retinal</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>R2500</td>
			<td>all-trans retinal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FuGENE HD</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>E2312</td>
			<td>Transfection reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Biochrome</td>
			<td>FG 0445</td>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>3810</td>
			<td>Agar bridges</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>5239</td>
			<td>CaCl2 2H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CsCl</td>
			<td>Biomol</td>
			<td>2452</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>3054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS</td>
			<td>Biochrome</td>
			<td>S0615</td>
			<td>Cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>HN06</td>
			<td>D(+)-Glucose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>6781</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>2189</td>
			<td>MgCl2 6H2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>3957</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NMG</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M2004</td>
			<td>N-Methyl-D-glucamine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na-Aspartate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A6683</td>
			<td>L-Aspartic acid sodium salt monohydrate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Citric acid</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>6490</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AgeI</td>
			<td>ThermoFischerScientific</td>
			<td>ER1462</td>
			<td>Restriction enzyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XhoI</td>
			<td>ThermoFischerScientific</td>
			<td>ER0695</td>
			<td>Restriction enzyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NheI</td>
			<td>ThermoFischerScientific</td>
			<td>ER0975</td>
			<td>Restriction enzyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XL1Blue E.coli/</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>200249</td>
			<td>Chemocompetent E.coli</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>T832</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysogeny broth medium</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>X964</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar-Agar</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>6494</td>
			<td>Agar plates</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasmid purification kit</td>
			<td>Marchery-Nagel</td>
			<td>740727.25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicilin/Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Biochrome</td>
			<td>A 2213</td>
			<td>Cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-D-lysine hydrobromide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P6407-5MG</td>
			<td>Cover slip coating</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microforge</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Fire polishing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serological pipettes</td>
			<td>TPP</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Different sizes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clean bench</td>
			<td>Kojair</td>
			<td>Biowizard SL130</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stirrer</td>
			<td>IKA</td>
			<td>RCT classic</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silver wire</td>
			<td>Science Products</td>
			<td>AG-T25; AG-T10</td>
			<td>Electrodes, 0.64 mm (bath); 0.25 mm (electrode)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH-meter</td>
			<td>Knick</td>
			<td>765 Calimetric</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Osmometer</td>
			<td>Vogel</td>
			<td>OM 815</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td>ID03</td>
			<td>Fire polishing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CO2 incubator</td>
			<td>Binder</td>
			<td>CB150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell culture dishes</td>
			<td>TPP</td>
			<td>93040</td>
			<td>34 mm internal diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cover slips</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>P232</td>
			<td>15 mm diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermometer</td>
			<td>R&#246;ssel Messtechnik</td>
			<td>MTM12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beamsplitter</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>21011</td>
			<td>90/10 transmission</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette holder</td>
			<td>ALA Scientific Instruments</td>
			<td>PPH-1P-AXU-0-1.5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headstage</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>CV203BU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amplifier</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>AxoPatch200B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digitizer</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>DigiData1400</td>
			<td>Digital analog converter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lightsource</td>
			<td>TILL Photonics</td>
			<td>Polychrome V</td>
			<td>Set to 540 nm full intensity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td>Axiovert 100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shutter</td>
			<td>Vincent Associates</td>
			<td>VS25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shutter driver</td>
			<td>Vincent Associates</td>
			<td>VCM-D1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass capilarries</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>G150F-3</td>
			<td>Boresilicate capillaries with fire polished ends OD 1.5 mm ID&#160; 0.86 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td>P1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bath handler</td>
			<td>Lorenz Messger&#228;tebau</td>
			<td>MPCU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tripleband filterset</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>69008</td>
			<td>Fluorescence filter&#160; ECFP/EYFP/mCherry</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD camera</td>
			<td>Watec</td>
			<td>Wat-221SCCD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optometer</td>
			<td>Gigahertz Optik</td>
			<td>P9710</td>
			<td>Measure light intensities</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Objective</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td>421462-9900-000</td>
			<td>W Plan-Apochromat 40X/1.0 DIC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Scientifica</td>
			<td>PatchStar</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recording chamber</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power supply</td>
			<td>Manson</td>
			<td>HCS-3202</td>
			<td>Avoids electrical noise from microscope built-in power supply</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibration isolated table</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td>M-VW-3636-OPT-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Faraday cage</td>
			<td>Custom made or any commercial matching table</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hoses</td>
			<td>Any comercial; e.g. Roth</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Different sizes and materials for bath handling and application of pipette pressure; agar bridges</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Linear shaker</td>
			<td>Sunlab Instruments</td>
			<td>SU 1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid junction potential calculator</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices or directly from Peter H. Barry</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Program is included in the Clampex aquisition software or can be obtained from&#160; p.barry@unsw.edu.au</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data acquisition software</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>Clampex 10.X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Data evaluation software</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>Clampfit 10.X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PsACR1</td>
			<td>GenBank or Addgene</td>
			<td>KF992074.1 or Addgene plasmid #85465</td>
			<td>Gene encoding for PsACR1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amplifier guide</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>The Axon Guide</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

Source: Grimm, C., et al. <a href="https://app.jove.com/v/55497">Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings for electrophysiological determination of ion selectivity in channelrhodopsins.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2017)
In this video, embryonic kidney cell cultures expressing light-dependent ion channel proteins fused with a fluorescent reporter demonstrate the effect of light on ion movement. Whole-cell patch clamp is used to monitor the movement of ions.

1. Setup Prior to Recordings

	Prepare the recording solutions with ion concentrations as indicated in Table 1.&#8203;
	
		Prepare 15 mL of 2 M stock ...

Place a coverslip containing embryonic kidney cells expressing light-dependent ion channels and a fluorescent reporter protein on a silicon-applied measuring chamber. Close it and add an external buffer. 
Position this chamber under a microscope. Place a bath electrode filled with agar. Perfuse with a buffer to remove residual media and dead cells. 
Using a fluorescence filter, identify and focus on the target cell. 
Attach a patch pipette to a micromanipulator. Apply pressure to prevent clogging and approach the cell. 
Position the pipette near the cell and release positive pressure to form a membrane patch at the tip. 
After forming the membrane patch, apply negative pressure to rupture the membrane. 
Apply a light of a specific wavelength to open the ion channels. The movement of ions is recorded as voltage change by the electrode.

9 Views. Elettrofisiologia optogenetica Registrazione di cellule con canali ionici dipendenti dalla luce

Video: Elettrofisiologia optogenetica Registrazione di cellule con canali ionici dipendenti dalla luce - Experiment

Optogenetic Stimulation of the Auditory Nerve

Direct electrical stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) by cochlear implants (CIs) enables open speech comprehension in the majority of implanted deaf subjects1-6. Nonetheless, sound coding with current CIs has poor frequency and intensity resolution due to broad current spread from each electrode contact activating a large number of SGNs along the tonotopic axis of the cochlea7-9. Optical stimulation is proposed as an alternative to electrical stimulation that promises spatially more confined activation of SGNs and, hence, higher frequency resolution of coding. In recent years, direct infrared illumination of&#160;the cochlea has been used to evoke responses in the auditory nerve10. Nevertheless it requires higher energies than electrical stimulation10,11 and uncertainty remains as to the underlying mechanism12. Here we describe a method based on optogenetics to stimulate SGNs with low intensity blue light, using transgenic mice with neuronal expression of channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2)13 or virus-mediated expression of the ChR2-variant CatCh14. We used micro-light emitting diodes (&#181;LEDs) and fiber-coupled lasers to stimulate ChR2-expressing SGNs through a small artificial opening (cochleostomy) or the round window. We assayed the responses by scalp recordings of light-evoked potentials (optogenetic auditory brainstem response: oABR) or by microelectrode recordings from the auditory pathway and compared them with acoustic and electrical stimulation.

Cochlear implants (CIs) enable hearing by direct electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve. However, poor frequency and intensity resolution limits the quality of hearing with CIs. Here we describe optogenetic stimulation of the auditory nerve in mice as an alternative strategy for auditory research and developing future CIs.

Stimolazione optogenetic del nervo uditivo

Direct electrical stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) by cochlear implants (CIs) enables open speech comprehension in the majority of implanted ...

Ricerca

JoVE Journal

Neuroscienze

Optogenetic Functional MRI

The investigation of the functional connectivity of precise neural circuits across the entire intact brain can be achieved through optogenetic functional magnetic resonance imaging (ofMRI), which is a novel technique that combines the relatively high spatial resolution of high-field fMRI with the precision of optogenetic stimulation. Fiber optics that enable delivery of specific wavelengths of light deep into the brain in vivo are implanted into regions of interest in order to specifically stimulate targeted cell types that have been genetically induced to express light-sensitive trans-membrane conductance channels, called opsins. fMRI is used to provide a non-invasive method of determining the brain's global dynamic response to optogenetic stimulation of specific neural circuits through measurement of the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal, which provides an indirect measurement of neuronal activity. This protocol describes the construction of fiber optic implants, the implantation surgeries, the imaging with photostimulation and the data analysis required to successfully perform ofMRI. In summary, the precise stimulation and whole-brain monitoring ability of ofMRI are crucial factors in making ofMRI a powerful tool for the study of the connectomics of the brain in both healthy and diseased states.

This protocol describes the steps and data analysis required to successfully perform optogenetic functional magnetic resonance imaging (ofMRI). ofMRI is a novel technique that combines high-field fMRI readout with optogenetic stimulation, allowing for cell type-specific mapping of functional neural circuits and their dynamics across the whole living brain.

Optogenetic risonanza magnetica funzionale

The investigation of the functional connectivity of precise neural circuits across the entire intact brain can be achieved through optogenetic functional ...

Optogenetic Electrophysiology Recording of Cells with Light-Dependent Ion Channels

Trascrizione

Optogenetic Electrophysiology Recording of Cells with Light-Dependent Ion Channels