We thank Mr. Craig D. Slaven (Department of English, University of Kentucky) for editorial assistance. Supported by University of Kentucky, Department of Biology, Office of Undergraduate Studies and College of Arts &amp; Sciences.

1) Introduction
Motor neurons communicate with a muscle fiber at synapses which are collectively referred to as a neuromuscular junction (NMJ). NMJs can be accessed easily in most crayfish muscle preparations. Many of the crayfish NMJs demonstrate non-spiking excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) similar to the graded electrical signals generated in postsynaptic dendrites within the mammalian CNS or subthreshold responses noted in vertebrate NMJs (Wiersma &amp; Van Harreveld, 1938; Katz &amp; Kuffler, 1946). The crayfish NMJs can serve as fundamental synaptic models to provide general insights into synaptic transmission and synaptic differentiation.
Generally, motor units regulate aspects of animal behavior via the type of synaptic communication at NMJs and properties of the muscles. Since the first observation of "fast" and "slow" muscle contractions in crab and crayfish closer muscle (Lucas, 1907, 1917), similar muscular contractile differentiation has been described in other crayfish muscle types such as abdominal flexors (Kennedy &amp; Takeda,1965a, b) and limb extensors (Van Harreveld &amp; Wiersma, 1936). "Fast" contractions initiate quick responses. For example, the crayfish tail flip is a fast behavior. "Slow" contractions maintain slow movements and help maintain posture (Bradacs et al., 1997). Corresponding to "fast" and "slow" muscle contractions, "phasic/high output" and "tonic/low output" are broadly used to describe the motor neurons. The difference in rate and timing of muscle contraction is in part related to presynaptic differences in synaptic structure and synaptic strength (King et al., 1996). Myofibrillar protein isoform expression is also important in contractile differences, but in preparations like that of the leg extensor muscle, in which a given fiber is innervated by both types of motor neurons, the focus is on synaptic differences of the terminals, since the terminals share the same target cell (Mykles et al., 2002). An earlier study examined the two excitatory motor axons of the leg extensor and described the phasic and tonic phenotypes (Bradacs et al., 1997). In this report, we demonstrate how to perform the dissection and obtain recordings so that others can further investigate the properties of the synaptic differentiation of these nerve terminals.
Viewed with transmission electron microscopy, various series of sections obtained from the tonic and phasic terminals on crayfish leg extensor muscle revealed that tonic terminals contain more RRP vesicles than phasic terminals; the mitochondria are more prevalent in tonic neurons, and the synapses on phasic terminals are more complex than those on the low-output synapses, since they contain multiple active zones with varied spacing (Miller et al, 2002; Johnstone et al., 2008; King et al., 1996; Bradacs et al., 1997). The low-output tonic terminals are also more susceptible to enhancing synaptic transmission with the neuromodulator serotonin (5-HT) than are the phasic terminals (Cooper et al., 2003).
The fact that the tonic and phasic NMJ are present on the same muscle fiber makes it easier to assess presynaptic differences on a given muscle fiber and to address questions of muscle fatigue, synaptic depression and synaptic cross talk. Various questions remain to be addressed in this preparation, such as whether there are differences in the postsynaptic receptor density and glutamate receptor subtypes in postsynaptic targets for the tonic and phasic terminals, but a better understanding of the fundamental differences in the anatomy and physiology of these two motor units will aid in building a more profound knowledge base. The hope is that the fundamental principles learned in this synaptic preparation will be applicable to other synapses in various preparations and will enhance future investigations in this synaptic model of the crayfish.
2) Methods
<ol>
<li> All the experiments are conducted on the first or second walking legs of midsize crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). The animals are individually housed in plastic containers with oxygenized water. The temperature of the animal room is in the range of 13&deg;C-16&deg;C. The animals are fed with dry fish food and the water changed on a weekly basis. 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> 
Figure 1: Schematic of a crayfish walking leg and the six distal segments.</li>
<li> The distal aspect of the walking leg in a crayfish is anatomically divided into six segments (Figure 1). The leg extensor is located in the meropodite, and the nerve bundle that will be isolated is close to the meropodite ischiopodite joint. The tonic or phasic axon can be selectively stimulated as needed for physiological purposes after they are exposed. </li>
<li> Cooper and Cooper (2009) described some aspects of the initial dissection, including methods for exposing the excitor of the opener motor neuron within the meropodite region, but their description does not provide the care required for protecting the extensor muscle from damage, as it was not needed to address the opener muscle preparation. In order to protect the extensor, the first or second walking leg is removed from the crayfish, measuring 6-10 cm in body length (Atchafalaya Biological Supply Co., Raceland, LA), by inducing the animal to automize the limb with forceful pinching distal to the fracture plane in the ischiopodite segment. The leg is placed on the dissection plate with the lateral (outer side) facing the viewer. The leg is turned around until the viewer can be sure the outside (lateral side) is facing up on the dissection plate, usually with the arched side up (Figure 2). Placing the leg on a piece of tissue paper makes it easier to turn the preparation while making these cuts.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2" /> 
Figure 2: The lateral side of the meropodite, usually the side that is arched, is facing up on the dissection plate.</li>
<li> With a scalpel blade breaker and holder, a sharp razor blade is used to etch the cuticle until just cutting through in the pattern shown in Figure 3 for the meropodite segment. Care is taken not to cut too far distal on the dorsal to ventral cut by the meropodite-carpopodite joint.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig3.jpg" alt="Figure 3" /> 
Figure 3: The meropodite segment with lines as a suggested pattern for etching out the window of cuticle. The preparation is placed in saline. The dissection dish should have a Sylgard (Dow Corning) coating on the bottom (1cm thick).The Sylgard is used so that insect pins can be stuck into it for holding the preparation still. At this point, a pin is stuck in the middle of the carpopodite segment and in the dorsal aspect of the ischiopodite segment (Figure 4). Dissected preparations are bathed in standard crayfish saline, modified from Van Harreveld s solution (1936), which is made with 205 NaCl; 5.3KCl; 13.5 CaCl2; 2H2O; 2.45 MgCl2; 6H2O; 5 HEPES and adjusted to pH 7.4 (in mM). 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig4.jpg" alt="Figure 4" /> 
Figure 4: The meropodite segment with cut window being lifted off. Note the location of the dissection pins.</li>
<li> The cuticle is gently lifted in the distal region and the muscle fibers are cut away from the cuticle by making strokes towards the base of the leg. The cuticle can be lifted off.</li>
<li> The apodeme (tendon) is cut at the meropodite-carpopodite joint. A pin is placed on the inner surface of the flexor tendon to show where the cut is to be made (Figure 5). The tendon is then pinched where it was cut with tweezers and the flexor muscle pulled off by lifting it in a caudal direction (Figure 6), exposing the main leg nerve and the extensor muscle. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig5.jpg" alt="Figure 5" /> 
Figure 5: The apodeme of the flexor muscle is highlighted by displacing it from the flexor with a pin. 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig6.jpg" alt="Figure 6" /> 
Figure 6: The apodeme of the flexor muscle is cut and removed with care as not to damage the main leg nerve.</li>
<li> The main leg nerve is cut at the meropodite-carpopodite joint and carefully pulled back over the extensor muscle. The medial surface of the muscle is used throughout this study. The separation of the nerve to the extensor muscle from the main leg nerve can be enhanced by gently pulling the distal stump of the main leg nerve to the side of the preparation. When peeling the main leg nerve back over the extensor muscle, small branches of axon may need to be cut. These are branches from the inhibitory motor neuron to the extensor muscle. The larger bundle branching off from the main leg nerve near the proximal end of the meropodite is the small nerve bundle of interest. 
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig7.jpg" alt="Figure 7" /> 
Figure 7: The main leg nerve is cut and pulled back in a proximal direction. This nerve bundle can be seen with methylene blue staining (Figure 8) or with 4-Di-2-ASP fluorescent stain (Figure 9). 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig8.jpg" alt="Figure 8" /> 
Figure 8: The extensor muscle stained with methylene blue. Note the axon branching and the two readily visible axons within the nerve. Red arrows demark the nerve track. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig9.jpg" alt="Figure 9" /> 
Figure 9: The axons of the motor nerve stained with 4-Di-2-ASP. The tonic axon is more brightly visible due to the increased mitochondrial content. 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig10a.jpg" alt="Figure 10A" />
Figure 10A: Individual terminals of phasic and tonic neurons stained with 4-Di-2-ASP. Note the varicosities on the tonic terminals and the thin nature of the phasic terminals. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig10b.jpg" alt="Figure 10B" /> 
Figure 10B -Tonic noted <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig10c.jpg" alt="Figure 10C" /> 
Figure 10C -Phasic noted</li>
</ol>
3) Physiological Profiles 
<ol>
<li> To observe the excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) of the tonic or phasic neurons, one of the isolated axons in the nerve bundle is stimulated by a suction electrode (Figure 11) connected to a Grass stimulator while intracellular potentials in the muscle are monitored (Johnstone et al., 2008). Stimulation at 70 Hz is applied to the tonic axon in order to promote a facilitated response for the low output NMJs, or a single pulse (1 Hz) is applied to the phasic axon in order to obtain large EPSPs of the high output NMJs as shown in Figure 12. The EPSPs are recorded to a computer via a PowerLab/4s interface. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig11.jpg" alt="Figure 11" /> 
Figure 11: Stimulating electrode placed over a single axon within the nerve bundle. Note the green line outlining the 2 main axons. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig12.jpg" alt="Figure 12" /> 
Figure 12: Postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) of the tonic or phasic neurons as obtained by intracellular recordings.</li>
<li> Investigation in the nature of synaptic facilitation and synaptic depression can be approached by various experimental paradigms with the low and high output NMJs. Facilitation of the low output NMJs depends on the frequency, as shown for the 20, 40 and 60 Hz pulses of approximately 20 stimuli (Figure 13). <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig13.jpg" alt="Figure 13" /> 
Figure 13: EPSPs in response to a train of stimulation pulses given at three different frequencies 20, 40 and 60 Hz in normal crayfish saline.</li>
<li> The rate of synaptic depression to frequency of stimulation is also related to the high output NMJs. Figure 14 shows a continuous 5 Hz of stimulation depressing the NMJ over 30 min. With higher stimulation frequency, the preparation will depress more rapidly (Bradacs et al., 1997). <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig14.jpg" alt="Figure 14" /> 
Figure 14: EPSP amplitude of the phasic response during 5 Hz stimulation to induce depression.</li>
</ol>
4) Quantal Responses
<ol>
<li> A procedure similar to that described for the opener muscle of the crayfish (Cooper and Cooper, 2009) is used in this preparation. The quantal EPSPs directly over identifiable regions of the nerve terminal are recorded by placing the lumen of a macro-patch recording electrode on synaptic varicosities visualized with the vital dye 4-Di-2-Asp (5 &mu;M, 5-min treatment, Cooper et al., 1995; Magrassi et al., 1987). The spontaneous as well as evoked quantal responses can be recorded along the nerve terminals. The evoked and spontaneous synaptic potentials are recorded with the macro-patch electrode (Dudel, 1981; Wojtowicz et al.,1991; Mallart, 1993). Kimax glass (outer diameter: 1.5 mm) was pulled and fire-polished to produce patch tips with inside diameters ranging from 10 to 20 &mu;m (Figure 15). <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig15.jpg" alt="Figure 15" /> 
Figure 15: The lumen of a macro-patch recording electrode. The lumen of the electrode is filled with the bathing medium. The amplifier is the same as that used for the intracellular recordings mentioned above. Electrode and seal resistance can be determined by passing test current pulses through the electrode. In our experiments, seal resistances ranged from 0.3 to 1.0 MOhm and the electrode resistance ranged from 0.5 to 1.0 MOhm. Seal resistance can be monitored throughout the recording.</li>
<li> Direct counting of quantal events is possible with low stimulation frequencies. For each evoked response, the number of quantal events can be readily determined for the low output terminals (Figure 16). These direct counts can help estimate the mean quantal content (Del Castillo &amp; Katz, 1954; Cooper et al., 1995). Since the evoked high output NMJs produce multi-quantal evoked events, the mean amplitude or area of the deflections, along with the average peak amplitude or area of the spontaneous events, can be used to approximate the mean quantal content (Cooper et al., 1995). <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig16.jpg" alt="Figure 16" /> 
Figure 16 Focal traces recorded from a phasic and a tonic NMJ. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2319/2319fig17.jpg" alt="Figure 17" /> 
Figure 17</li>
</ol>

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Molecular Mechanisms of synaptic function.</a> , (2001).</li><li>Van Harreveld, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+physiological+solution+for+freshwater+crustaceans.">A physiological solution for freshwater crustaceans.</a> Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 34, 428-432 (1936).</li><li>Van Harreveld, A., Wiersma, C. A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+triple+innervation+of+the+crayfish+muscle.">The triple innervation of the crayfish muscle.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 22, 667-667 (1936).</li><li>Wiersma, C. A. G., Van Harreveld, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+influence+of+the+frequency+of+stimulation+on+the+slow+and+fast+contraction+in+crustacean+muscle.">The influence of the frequency of stimulation on the slow and fast contraction in crustacean muscle.</a> Physiol. Zool. 11, 75-81 (1938).</li><li>Wojtowicz, J. M., Smith, B. R., Atwood, H. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activity-dependent+recruitment+of+silent+synapses.">Activity-dependent recruitment of silent synapses.</a> Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 627, 169-179 (1991).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

We have demonstrated in this report how to dissect, record and quantify synaptic responses in a unique crayfish neuromuscular preparation in which both high- and low-output terminals innervate the same muscle fiber. The neuromuscular preparations in the crayfish offer many advantages over vertebrate neuromuscular junctions, since only a few excitatory motor neurons are needed to innervate a muscle, and since the neurons are identifiable from preparation to preparation (Atwood, 1976). In addition, the excitatory neurotransmitter is glutamate, and the excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) are graded; thus, the biophysical properties of graded events are analogous to the dendrites of neurons within the CNS of vertebrates. The quantal currents, however, can be monitored directly at the postsynaptic sites (Cooper et al., 1995).
Repetitive 5 Hz stimulation of the phasic nerve gives rise to large EPSPs that become greatly depressed after several minutes. This type of depression is common in arthropod phasic neuromuscular junctions (Atwood and Cooper, 1996). The presence of the tonic terminals alongside the phasic terminals allows one to assess whether or not the postsynaptic target is greatly modified during and after depression of the phasic motor neuron. In addition, the low output terminals provide a nice preparation to investigate mechanisms that underlie synaptic facilitation (Desai-Shah et al., 2008; Desai-Shah and Cooper, 2009)
The high output terminals provide a play ground to investigate modulation in the rate of synaptic depression and the recovery process. Accessible and viable preparations should help in deciphering the mechanisms behind synaptic depression. In this crayfish leg extensor preparation, exogenous application of serotonin is another tool to investigate recovery of synaptic depression and potentially a means of furthering investigation into the mobilization of synaptic vesicle pools. This preparation provides several experimental advantages, since individual muscle fibers are innervated by both phasic and tonic motor neurons. 
Since serotonin increases the number of vesicles that are released with evoked stimulation, and since it promotes recovery during depression, it is apparent that there is some modulation of the vesicle pools for enhancing the probability of fusion with serotonin present (Johnstone et al., 2008; Logsdon et al., 2006; Sparks et al., 2004). Models that would explain the dynamics of the vesicle pools within the presynaptic nerve terminal during low frequency stimulation, as opposed to a depressed state, also need to be considered among the various experimental protocols that are possible with this preparation. 
It has been noted in other systems that about 30% of the vesicle pool undergoes a rapid recycling, whereas the rest of the recycled vesicles go through a traditional slow recycling path through the endoplasmic reticulum (Harata et al., 2001; Tsien et al., 2001). Such dual paths may also be present in this system. If ATP is lacking in the depressed state of the presynaptic terminal, then docking and undocking might not be able to occur; thus, many more unloaded vesicles would remain at the synaptic surface. Since more vesicles are rapidly released when the terminals are exposed to 5 HT, it is feasible that more are contained within the readily releasable pool (RRV). However, in the depressed state, with reduced ATP, the docking and undocking may be blocked even in the presence of 5 HT, which again leaves unloaded vesicles at the synaptic surface. Since the preliminary data suggests that more vesicles are released over time with prolonged 5 HT exposure and stimulation, the distribution of the vesicle pool from the fast and slow recycling paths may be skewed to have competent vesicles for re-release (from Johnstone et al., 2008; see reviews- Desai-Shah et al., 2008; Desai-Shah and Cooper, 2009)
With the techniques of focal macropatch recordings of postsynaptic currents and measures of single quanta from defined regions of the motor nerve terminal, one can ask questions to determine whether synaptic depression is occurring as a result of fewer vesicles being released or because of alterations of the function of postsynaptic receptors. It has been shown that the vesicles are more sensitive to fusion at the phasic NMJ of this preparation for an equal calcium exposure (Miller et al. 2005), which likely accounts for the higher mean quantal content of the phasic terminals (Msghina et al., 1998, 1999). In addition, differences in the calcium binding protein frequenin (Jeromin et al., 1999) and ultrastructure (King et al., 1996) contribute to the differential synaptic efficacy (Cooper et al., 2003).

Some prior studies have explored the muscle phenotype of the extensor muscle fibers (Bradacs et al., 1997; Cooper et al., 2003). Comparing the regulation of muscle differentiation for purely tonic and phasic fiber types in the crayfish to mixed fiber types, like for the leg extensor that is dully innervated, could provide clues to muscle phenotype expression and regulation (LaFramboise et al., 2000; Sohn et al., 2000; Griffis et al., 2001; Mykles et al., 2002).
Many fundamental questions remain to be addressed in neurobiology, and this preparation may aid in tackling some of them. A few topics of interest in the field today that might be approached with the leg extensor include: 1) Determining the cellular mechanisms that underlie synaptic depression within high-output terminals (Is the depression due to a reduction of Ca2+ entry, lack of a competent readily releasable vesicle (RRV) pool, and/or altered postsynaptic receptivity?) 2) Determining the mechanistic role of 5-HT when applied after the induction of synaptic depression to promote a faster recovery, and 3) Determining whether the shapes of the quantal currents that arise from stimulating phasic terminals are being altered during the induction of depression to address pre- and post-synaptic components of synaptic depression.
This NMJ is important to ongoing research and future investigators because it enables us to obtain pertinent information that addresses the underling mechanisms of synaptic performance as measured directly at the release sites. Current research in this area is providing information about the modulation of synaptic depression by 5-HT and the dynamics of the vesicle pools. Such topics pertain to the fundamental basics of synaptic transmission relevant to all neural systems.

<ol>
	<li>Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). Atchafalaya Biological Supply Co., Raceland, LA., USA.</li>
	<li>Standard crayfish saline:
 <ul>
		<li>Modified from Van Harreveld's solution (1936). (in mM) 205 NaCl; 5.3 KCl; 13.5 CaCl22H2O; 2.45 MgCl26H2O; 5 HEPES and adjusted to pH 7.4</li>
	</ul>
 </li>
	<li>Dissection tools: Fine #5 tweezers, fine scissors, knife blade holder, #26002-20 insect pins (all obtained from Fine Science Tools (USA), Inc., 373-G Vintage Park Drive, Foster City, CA 94404-1139)</li>
	<li>Sylgard coated dissection dish, a recording dish either constructed with suction electrode or use a suction electrode and anther manipulator to hold a suction electrode.</li>
	<li>Dissecting microscope with zoom function for intracellular recordings. For focal recording on visualized terminals a compound microscope with upright objectives (4 x and 20X) is used. One needs a Hg light source.</li>
	<li>Standard intracellular amplifier and A/D board for on line recording to a computer. Electrical signals are recorded on line to a <a href="http://www.adinstruments.com/products/pl3504#overview" target="_blank">PowerLab/4s interface</a> (ADInstruments, Australia). We use standard <a href="http://www.adinstruments.com/products/software/research/LabChart-Software/" target="_blank">software from ADInstruments named Chart or Scope</a>.</li>
	<li>Chemicals: 
 <ul>
 	<li>We use a vital fluorescent dye, 4 [4 (diethylamino) styryl] N methylpyridinium iodide (4 Di 2 Asp; Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR), to visualize the varicosities (Marigassi et al., 1987; Cooper et al., 1995a). All saline chemicals were obtained from Sigma chemical company (St. Louis, MO).</li>
	</ul>
</li>
	<li>For intracellular recordings we use glass capillary tubing (catalogue # 30-31-0 from FHC, Brunswick, ME, 04011, USA) and for focal macropatch electrodes we use Kimax-51, Kimble Products Art. No. 34502, ID 0.8-1.1mm, length 100mm. The intracellular electrode should have a resistance of 20 to 30 mOhm. The macropatch electrode is constructed by breaking off the tip of the glass after a fine tip was made from an electrode puller. The broken off tip needs to be a clean perpendicular break about 20&mu;M in diameter. The tip is then heat polished to about 10&mu;M inner diameter. The shaft of the electrode is then run over a heating element to cause it to bend about 45 degrees with a gradual bend. This produces a flat or perpendicular electrode lumen over the nerve terminal as the angle with the micro-manipulator will produce about another 45 degrees to the preparation.</li>
</ol>

physiological recordings of high and low output nmjs on the crayfish leg extensor muscle

We explain in detail how to expose and conduct electrophysiological recordings of synaptic responses for high (phasic) and low (tonic) output motor neurons innervating the extensor muscle in the walking leg of a crayfish. Distinct differences are present in the physiology and morphology of the phasic and tonic nerve terminals. The tonic axon contains many more mitochondria, enabling it to take a vital stain more intensely than the phasic axon. The tonic terminals have varicosities, and the phasic terminal is filiform. The tonic terminals are low in synaptic efficacy but show dramatic facilitated responses. In contrast, the phasic terminals are high in quantal efficacy but show synaptic depression with high frequency stimulation. The quantal output is measured with a focal macropatch electrode placed directly over the visualized nerve terminals. Both phasic and tonic terminals innervate the same muscle fibers, which suggests that inherent differences in the neurons, rather than differential retrograde feedback from the muscle, account for the morphological and physiological differentiation.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Physiological Recordings of High and Low Output NMJs on the Crayfish Leg Extensor Muscle at JoVE.com

Physiological Recordings of High and Low Output NMJs on the Crayfish Leg Extensor Muscle

This article demonstrates how to conduct electrophysiological recordings of synaptic responses on the extensor muscle in the walking leg of a crayfish and how the nerve terminals are visualized to show the gross morphological differences of high- and low-output nerve terminals.

We explain in detail how to expose and conduct electrophysiological recordings of synaptic responses for high (phasic) and low (tonic) output motor ...

physiological-recordings-high-low-output-nmjs-on-crayfish-leg

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

11.6K ビュー.  University of Kentucky. この記事では、ザリガニの歩行足に伸筋のシナプス応答の電気生理学的記録を行い、どのように神経終末が高と低出力の神経終末の総形態的な違いを示すために可視化する方法を示します。

ビデオ: Physiological Recordings of High and Low Output NMJs on the Crayfish Leg Extensor Muscle

State-Dependency Effects on TMS:  A Look at Motive Phosphene Behavior

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized magnetic field pulses.1,2 Within the field of TMS, the term state dependency refers to the initial, baseline condition of the particular neural region targeted for stimulation. As can be inferred, the effects of TMS can (and do) vary according to this primary susceptibility and responsiveness of the targeted cortical area.3,4,5

In this experiment, we will examine this concept of state dependency through the elicitation and subjective experience of motive phosphenes. Phosphenes are visually perceived flashes of small lights triggered by electromagnetic pulses to the visual cortex. These small lights can assume varied characteristics depending upon which type of visual cortex is being stimulated. In this particular study, we will be targeting motive phosphenes as elicited through the stimulation of V1/V2 and the V5/MT+ complex visual regions.6

In this article, we examine the effects of visually relevant state dependency on TMS induced motive phosphenic presentations.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate ...

Membrane Potentials, Synaptic Responses, Neuronal Circuitry, Neuromodulation and Muscle Histology Using the Crayfish: Student Laboratory Exercises

The purpose of this report is to help develop an understanding of the effects caused by ion gradients across a biological membrane. Two aspects that influence a cell's membrane potential and which we address in these experiments are: (1) Ion concentration of K+ on the outside of the membrane, and (2) the permeability of the membrane to specific ions. The crayfish abdominal extensor muscles are in groupings with some being tonic (slow) and others phasic (fast) in their biochemical and physiological phenotypes, as well as in their structure; the motor neurons that innervate these muscles are correspondingly different in functional characteristics. We use these muscles as well as the superficial, tonic abdominal flexor muscle to demonstrate properties in synaptic transmission. In addition, we introduce a sensory-CNS-motor neuron-muscle circuit to demonstrate the effect of cuticular sensory stimulation as well as the influence of neuromodulators on certain aspects of the circuit. With the techniques obtained in this exercise, one can begin to answer many questions remaining in other experimental preparations as well as in physiological applications related to medicine and health. We have demonstrated the usefulness of model invertebrate preparations to address fundamental questions pertinent to all animals.

The experiments demonstrate an easy approach for students to gain experience in examining muscle structure, synaptic responses, the effects of ion gradients and permeability on membrane potentials. Also, a sensory-CNS-motor-muscle circuit is presented to show a means to test effects of compounds on a neuronal circuit.

The purpose of this report is to help develop an understanding of the effects caused by ion gradients across a biological membrane. Two aspects that ...

Muscle Receptor Organs in the Crayfish Abdomen: A Student Laboratory Exercise in Proprioception

The primary purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate primary sensory neurons conveying information of joint movements and positions as proprioceptive information for an animal. An additional objective of this experiment is to learn anatomy of the preparation by staining, dissection and viewing of neurons and sensory structures under a dissecting microscope. This is performed by using basic neurophysiological equipment to record the electrical activity from a joint receptor organ and staining techniques. The muscle receptor organ (MRO) system in the crayfish is analogous to the intrafusal muscle spindle in mammals, which aids in serving as a comparative model that is more readily accessible for electrophysiological recordings. In addition, these are identifiable sensory neurons among preparations. The preparation is viable in a minimal saline for hours which is amenable for student laboratory exercises. The MRO is also susceptible to neuromodulation which encourages intriguing questions in the sites of modulatory action and integration of dynamic signals of movements and static position along with a gain that can be changed in the system.

The primary purpose of this experiment is to understand how primary sensory neurons convey information of joint movements and positions as proprioceptive information for an animal. An additional objective of this report is present the anatomy of the preparation by dissection and viewing of neurons under a dissecting microscope.

The primary purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate primary sensory neurons conveying information of joint movements and positions as proprioceptive ...

Physiological Experimentation with the Crayfish Hindgut: A Student Laboratory Exercise

The purpose of the report is to describe dissection techniques for preparing the crayfish hindgut and to demonstrate how to make physiological recordings with a force transducer to monitor the strength of contraction. In addition, we demonstrate how to visually monitor peristaltic activity, which can be used as a bioassay for various peptides, biogenic amines and neurotransmitters. This preparation is amenable to student laboratories in physiology and for demonstrating pharmacological concepts to students. This preparation has been in use for over 100 years, and it still offers much as a model for investigating the generation and regulation of peristaltic rhythms and for describing the mechanisms underlying their modulation. The pharmacological assays and receptor sub-typing that were started over 50 years ago on the hindgut still contribute to research today. This robust preparation is well suited to training students in physiology and pharmacology.

In this report we demonstrate techniques that can be used to investigate the biology of the crayfish hindgut. We show how to dissect a crayfish abdomen and study the associated anatomy, physiology and modulation of activity. The peristaltic activity and strength of contractions are measured using a force transducer.

The purpose of the report is to describe dissection techniques for preparing the crayfish hindgut and to demonstrate how to make physiological recordings ...

Paired Patch Clamp Recordings from Motor-neuron and Target Skeletal Muscle in Zebrafish

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target muscle. This is a direct consequence of the accessibility to both cell types and ability to visually distinguish the single segmental CaP motor-neuron on the basis of morphology and location. This video demonstrates the microscopic methods used to identify a CaP motor-neuron and target muscle cells as well as the methodologies for recording from each cell type. Identification of the CaP motor-neuron type is confirmed by either dye filling or by the biophysical features such as action potential waveform and cell input resistance. Motor-neuron recordings routinely last for one hour permitting long-term recordings from multiple different target muscle cells. Control over the motor-neuron firing pattern enables measurements of the frequency-dependence of synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction. Owing to a large quantal size and the low noise provided by whole cell voltage clamp, all of the unitary events can be resolved in muscle. This feature permits study of basic synaptic properties such as release properties, vesicle recycling, as well as synaptic depression and facilitation. The advantages offered by this in vivo preparation eclipse previous neuromuscular model systems studied wherein the motor-neurons are usually stimulated by extracellular electrodes and the muscles are too large for whole cell patch clamp. The zebrafish preparation is amenable to combining electrophysiological analysis with a wide range of approaches including transgenic lines, morpholino knockdown, pharmacological intervention and in vivo imaging. These approaches, coupled with the growing number of neuromuscular disease models provided by mutant lines of zebrafish, open the door for new understanding of human neuromuscular disorders.

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target skeletal muscle. This video demonstrates the microscopic methods used to identify a segmental CaP motor-neuron and target muscle cells as well as the methodologies for recording from each cell type.

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target muscle.  ...

High-density EEG Recordings of the Freely Moving Mice using Polyimide-based Microelectrode

Electroencephalogram (EEG) indicates the averaged electrical activity of the neuronal populations on a large-scale level. It is widely utilized as a noninvasive brain monitoring tool in cognitive neuroscience as well as a diagnostic tool for epilepsy and sleep disorders in neurology. However, the underlying mechanism of EEG rhythm generation is still under the veil. Recently introduced polyimide-based microelectrode (PBM-array) for high resolution mouse EEG1 is one of the trials to answer the neurophysiological questions on EEG signals based on a rich genetic resource that the mouse model contains for the analysis of complex EEG generation process. This application of nanofabricated PBM-array to mouse skull is an efficient tool for collecting large-scale brain activity of transgenic mice and accommodates to identify the neural correlates to certain EEG rhythms in conjunction with behavior. However its ultra-thin thickness and bifurcated structure cause a trouble in handling and implantation of PBM-array. In the presented video, the preparation and surgery steps for the implantation of PBM-array on a mouse skull are described step by step. Handling and surgery tips to help researchers succeed in implantation are also provided.

In this article, we described the surgery procedure and handling tips for implantation of ultra-thin polyimide-based microelectrode array (PBM-array) on the mouse skull for acquisition of high-density encephalography (EEG) in a mouse model.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) indicates the averaged electrical activity of the neuronal populations on a large-scale level. It is widely utilized as a ...

Multi-electrode Array Recordings of Neuronal Avalanches in Organotypic Cultures

The cortex is spontaneously active, even in the absence of any particular input or motor output. During development, this activity is important for the migration and differentiation of cortex cell types and the formation of neuronal connections1. In the mature animal, ongoing activity reflects the past and the present state of an animal into which sensory stimuli are seamlessly integrated to compute future actions. Thus, a clear understanding of the organization of ongoing i.e. spontaneous activity is a prerequisite to understand cortex function. 
Numerous recording techniques revealed that ongoing activity in cortex is comprised of many neurons whose individual activities transiently sum to larger events that can be detected in the local field potential (LFP) with extracellular microelectrodes, or in the electroencephalogram (EEG), the magnetoencephalogram (MEG), and the BOLD signal from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The LFP is currently the method of choice when studying neuronal population activity with high temporal and spatial resolution at the mesoscopic scale (several thousands of neurons). At the extracellular microelectrode, locally synchronized activities of spatially neighbored neurons result in rapid deflections in the LFP up to several hundreds of microvolts. When using an array of microelectrodes, the organizations of such deflections can be conveniently monitored in space and time. 
Neuronal avalanches describe the scale-invariant spatiotemporal organization of ongoing neuronal activity in the brain2,3. They are specific to the superficial layers of cortex as established in vitro4,5, in vivo in the anesthetized rat 6, and in the awake monkey7. Importantly, both theoretical and empirical studies2,8-10 suggest that neuronal avalanches indicate an exquisitely balanced critical state dynamics of cortex that optimizes information transfer and information processing.
In order to study the mechanisms of neuronal avalanche development, maintenance, and regulation, in vitro preparations are highly beneficial, as they allow for stable recordings of avalanche activity under precisely controlled conditions. The current protocol describes how to study neuronal avalanches in vitro by taking advantage of superficial layer development in organotypic cortex cultures, i.e. slice cultures, grown on planar, integrated microelectrode arrays (MEA; see also 11-14).

A robust way to study neuronal avalanches, i.e. scale-invariant spatio-temporal activity bursts, indicative of critical state dynamics in cortex. Avalanches emerge spontaneously in developing superficial layers of cultured cortex which allows for long-term measurements of the activity with planar integrated multi-electrode arrays (MEA) under precisely controlled conditions.

The cortex is spontaneously active, even in the absence of any particular input or motor output.  During development, this activity is important for the ...

A Procedure for Implanting Organized Arrays of Microwires for Single-unit Recordings in Awake, Behaving Animals

In vivo electrophysiological recordings in the awake, behaving animal provide a powerful method for understanding neural signaling at the single-cell level. The technique allows experimenters to examine temporally and regionally specific firing patterns in order to correlate recorded action potentials with ongoing behavior. Moreover, single-unit recordings can be combined with a plethora of other techniques in order to produce comprehensive explanations of neural function. In this article, we describe the anesthesia and preparation for microwire implantation. Subsequently, we enumerate the necessary equipment and surgical steps to accurately insert a microwire array into a target structure. Lastly, we briefly describe the equipment used to record from each individual electrode in the array. The fixed microwire arrays described are well-suited for chronic implantation and allow for longitudinal recordings of neural data in almost any behavioral preparation. We discuss tracing electrode tracks to triangulate microwire positions as well as ways to combine microwire implantation with immunohistochemical techniques in order to increase the anatomical specificity of recorded results.

Implanting organized arrays of microwires for use in single-unit electrophysiological recordings presents a number of technical challenges.&#160;Methods for performing this technique and the equipment necessary are described.&#160;Also, the beneficial use of organized microwire arrays to record from distinct neural subregions with high spatial selectivity is discussed.

In vivo electrophysiological recordings in the awake, behaving animal provide a powerful method for understanding neural signaling at the single-cell ...

Functional Analysis of the Larval Feeding Circuit in Drosophila

The serotonergic feeding circuit in Drosophila melanogaster larvae can be used to investigate neuronal substrates of critical importance during the development of the circuit. Using the functional output of the circuit, feeding, changes in the neuronal architecture of the stomatogastric system can be visualized. Feeding behavior can be recorded by observing the rate of retraction of the mouth hooks, which receive innervation from the brain. Locomotor behavior is used as a physiological control for feeding, since larvae use their mouth hooks to traverse across an agar substrate. Changes in feeding behavior can be correlated with the axonal architecture of the neurites innervating the gut. Using immunohistochemistry it is possible to visualize and quantitate these changes. Improper handling of the larvae during behavior paradigms can alter data as they are very sensitive to manipulations. Proper imaging of the neurite architecture innervating the gut is critical for precise quantitation of number and size of varicosities as well as the extent of branch nodes. Analysis of most circuits allow only for visualization of neurite architecture or behavioral effects; however, this model allows one to correlate the functional output of the circuit with the impairments in neuronal architecture.

Functional Analysis of the Larval Feeding Circuit in Drosophila

The feeding circuit in Drosophila melanogaster larvae serves a simple yet powerful model that allows changes in feeding rate to be correlated with alterations in the stomatogastric neural circuitry. This circuit is composed of central serotonergic neurons that send projections to the mouth hooks as well as the foregut.

The serotonergic  feeding circuit in Drosophila  melanogaster larvae can be used to investigate neuronal substrates of  critical importance during the ...

The Swimmeret System of Crayfish: A Practical Guide for the Dissection of the Nerve Cord and Extracellular Recordings of the Motor Pattern

Here we demonstrate the dissection of the crayfish abdominal nerve cord. The preparation comprises the last two thoracic ganglia (T4, T5) and the chain of abdominal ganglia (A1 to A6). This chain of ganglia includes the part of the central nervous system (CNS) that drives coordinated locomotion of the pleopods (swimmerets): the swimmeret system. It is known for over five decades that in crayfish each swimmeret is driven by its own independent pattern generating kernel that generates rhythmic alternating activity 1-3. The motor neurons innervating the musculature of each swimmeret comprise two anatomically and functionally distinct populations 4. One is responsible for the retraction (power stroke, PS) of the swimmeret. The other drives the protraction (return stroke, RS) of the swimmeret. Motor neurons of the swimmeret system are able to produce spontaneously a fictive motor pattern, which is identical to the pattern recorded in vivo 1.
The aim of this report is to introduce an interesting and convenient model system for studying rhythm generating networks and coordination of independent microcircuits for students&#8217; practical laboratory courses. The protocol provided includes step-by-step instructions for the dissection of the crayfish&#8217;s abdominal nerve cord, pinning of the isolated chain of ganglia, desheathing the ganglia and recording the swimmerets fictive motor pattern extracellularly from the isolated nervous system.
Additionally, we can monitor the activity of swimmeret neurons recorded intracellularly from dendrites. Here we also describe briefly these techniques and provide some examples. Furthermore, the morphology of swimmeret neurons can be assessed using various staining techniques. Here we provide examples of intracellular (by iontophoresis) dye filled neurons and backfills of pools of swimmeret motor neurons. In our lab we use this preparation to study basic functions of fictive locomotion, the effect of sensory feedback on the activity of the CNS, and coordination between microcircuits on a cellular level.

Here we describe the dissection of the crayfish abdominal nerve cord. We also demonstrate an electrophysiological technique to record fictive locomotion from swimmeret motor neurons.

Here we demonstrate the dissection of the crayfish abdominal nerve cord. The preparation comprises the last two thoracic ganglia (T4, T5) and the chain of ...