パートI：電極のパターニング<ol><li>クリーンと脱水ITOコートガラススライドをポジ型フォトレジストで被覆した</li><li>表面はレジストから溶媒を除去するために100℃で焼成した</li><li>焼成後、表面はキヤノンマスクアライナを用いてフォトマスクを介して紫外光にさらされた</li><li>露光領域は、現像液で除去した</li><li>表面はハードに残っている現像液を除去するため焼成した</li><li>フォトレジストのパターニングで保護されていないITOの領域は、酸エッチング液でエッチングされた</li><li>残りのフォトレジストは、ITO電極を形成するために、アセトンで超音波処理によって削除されました</li></ol>パートII：表面改質<ol><li>修飾電極は、プラズマチャンバで洗浄し、トルエンでシラン2％PEGで修飾される。インキュベーションはベーキングの2時間続いて、2時間行われます。 </li></ol> 注 ：シランPEGはそれに対して反応性であるため、このプロセスは、水分の存在を避けるために窒素で満たされたグローブバッグで行われる。 パートIII：電気化学<ol><li>鋼線は、電極パッドに接続されています。 </li><li> PEGシラン修飾電極は、電気化学の実験を行うために電気化学セルに配置されます。 </li><li>相互接続された地域からのシランPEGをPBSで三電極系を用いて除去される。 </li></ol>パートIV：細胞のパターニング<ol><li>線維芽細胞は、最近取り除いた基質とインキュベートされています。インキュベーション時に、これらの細胞はPEGシランを取り除いた地域に添付していますが、細胞が表面上どこにもバインドされません。 </li><li>パターン化された細胞は、新鮮な培地で培養し、顕微鏡を用いて可視化されています。 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Lee, J. Y., Jones, C., Zern, M. A., Revzin, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+Local+Tissue-Specific+Gene+Expression+in+Cellular+Micropatterns.">Analysis of Local Tissue-Specific Gene Expression in Cellular Micropatterns.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 78, 8305-8312 (2006).</li></ol>

このビデオでは、我々は光学的に透明なインジウムスズ酸化物電極上で細胞のパターニングを実証した。フォトリソグラフィを用いてITO電極を作製した後、彼らはシランPEGのセル抵抗単分子膜で修飾した。この単分子膜は、細胞接着性のためにセル抵抗から面を切り替える電気化学を用いて脱着した。 3T3マウス線維芽細胞のパターニングは、彼のビデオで示されている。我々はまた、同じ手法を用いてパタ...

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<td>Indium Tin Oxide</td>
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<td>Delta Technologies</td>
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<td>Gelest Inc.</td>
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<td>320331</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>Nitric Acid</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
<td>258121</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>459836</td>
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<td>Acetone</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
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patterning cells on optically transparent indium tin oxide electrodes

細胞表面の相互作用を正確に空間的、時間的な支配力を行使する能力は、ネイティブ組織のin vitroでの模倣のように提供する多細胞構造の組み立ての重要な前提条件です。本研究では、フォトリソグラフィとウェットエッチング技術は、ガラス基板上に個別にアドレス可能なインジウムスズ酸化物（ITO）電極を作製するために使用された。 ITOの微小電極を含んでいるガラス基板は、ポリ（エチレングリコール）（PEG）それらの蛋白質と細胞抵抗するためにシランで修飾した。電極表面にPEG分子を絶縁の存在は、レドックスレポーター分子としてフェリシアン化カリウムを用いてサイクリックボルタンメトリーにより確認した。重要なのは、還元電位のアプリケーションは、典型的なフェリシアン酸化還元ピークの導電性電極の表​​面と外観の再生には、その結果、PEG層の脱離を引き起こした。還元電位のアプリケーションはまた、細胞接着性への非接着性細胞からのITO電極特性の切り替えに対応。電気化学的には、電極パターンに密接に対応する携帯電話のパターンで、空間的に定義された方法で行われているように細胞接着に許可されるITO微小電極からPEG -シラン層の除去。いくつかの細胞型のマイクロパターニングは、これらの基板上に示された。将来的には、この方法によってもたらされるbiointerfacial特性の制御は、光学的に透明基板上に正確な幾何学的構成に3つ以上の細胞型のアセンブリを介して細胞の微小環境を設計することができます。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Patterning Cells on Optically Transparent Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes at JoVE.com

Patterning Cells on Optically Transparent Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes

非汚染のPEGシラン単分子膜は、還元電位の印加によって、ガラス上に個々にアドレス可能なITO電極から脱着した。電気化学的には、電極パターンに密接に対応する携帯電話のパターンで、空間的に定義された方法で行われているように細胞接着に許可されるITO微小電極からPEG -シラン層の除去。

光学的に透明な酸化インジウムスズ電極上にパターニングセル

The ability to exercise precise spatial and temporal control over cell-surface interactions is an important prerequisite to the assembly of multi-cellular ...

patterning-cells-on-optically-transparent-indium-tin-oxide-electrodes

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

11.7K ビュー.  University of California, Davis. 非汚染のPEGシラン単分子膜は、還元電位の印加によって、ガラス上に個々にアドレス可能なITO電極から脱着した。電気化学的には、電極パターンに密接に対応する携帯電話のパターンで、空間的に定義された方法で行われているように細胞接着に許可されるITO微小電極からPEG -シラン層の除去。

ビデオ: Patterning Cells on Optically Transparent Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes

Patterning of Embryonic Stem Cells Using the Bio Flip Chip

Cell-cell interactions consisting of diffusible signaling and cell-cell contact (juxtacrine signaling) are important in numerous biological processes such as tumor growth, stem cell differentiation, and stem cell self-renewal. A number of methods currently exist to modulate cell signaling in vitro. One method of modulating the total amount of diffusible signaling is to vary the cell seeding density during culture. Due to the random nature of cell seeding, this results in considerable variation in the actual cell-cell spacing and amount of cell-cell contact, and cannot prescribe the local environment. A more specific approach for modulating cell signaling is to use molecular inhibitors or genetic approaches to knock down specific signaling proteins, but both of these methods are best suited to manipulating small numbers of molecules. Here, we demonstrate a new approach to modulating cell-cell signaling that modulates the local environment of a cluster of cells by placing different numbers of cells at desired locations on a substrate. This method provides a complementary way to control the local diffusible and juxtacrine signaling between cells. Our method makes use of the Bio Flip Chip (BFC), a microfabricated silicone chip containing hundreds-to-thousands of microwells, each sized to hold either a single cell or small numbers of cells. We load the chip with cells simply by pipetting them onto the array of wells and washing unloaded cells off the array. The chip is then flipped onto a substrate, whereby the cells fall out of the wells and onto the substrate, maintaining their patterning. After the cells have attached, the chip can be removed (or left on). This approach to cell patterning is unique in that it: 1) doesn't alter the chemistry of the substrate, thus allowing cells to proliferate and migrate; 2) allows patterning onto any substrate, including tissue-culture polystyrene, glass, matrigel, and even feeder cell layers; and 3) is compatible with traditional microcontact printing, allowing the creation of extracellular matrix islands with cells placed inside those islands. In this video, we demonstrate the patterning of mouse embryonic stem cells onto tissue-culture polystyrene using the BFC.

We demonstrate a simple method for placing cells at desired locations on a substrate. This method patterns cells by flipping a silicone chip containing microwells filled with cells onto the substrate. This method provides a new way to modulate diffusible and juxtacrine signaling between cells.

バイオフリップチップを用いた胚性幹細胞のパターニング

Cell-cell interactions consisting of diffusible signaling and cell-cell contact (juxtacrine signaling) are important in numerous biological processes such ...

生物学

Making Patch-pipettes and Sharp Electrodes with a Programmable Puller

Glass microelectrodes (also called pipettes) have been a workhorse of electrophysiology for decades. Today, such pipettes are made from glass capillaries using a programmable puller. Such instruments heat the capillary using either a metal filament or a laser and draw out the glass using gravity, a motor or both. Pipettes for patch-clamp recording are formed using only heat and gravity, while sharp electrodes for intracellular recording use a combination of heat, gravity, and a motor. The procedure used to make intracellular recording pipettes is similar to that used to make injection needles for a variety of applications, including cRNA injection into Xenopus oocytes. In general, capillary glass &lt;1.2 mm in diameter is used to make pipettes for patch clamp recording, while narrower glass is used for intracellular recording (outer diameter = 1.0 mm). For each tool, the puller is programmed slightly differently. This video shows how to make both kinds of recording pipettes using pre-established puller programs.

This video shows how to use a programmable puller to make patch pipettes and sharp electrodes for electrophysiology. The same procedure can be used to make a variety of glass tools, including injection needles.

パッチピペットおよびプログラマブルプラーとシャープ電極作成

Glass microelectrodes (also called pipettes) have been a workhorse of electrophysiology for decades.  Today, such pipettes are made from glass capillaries ...

Fabrication of Amperometric Electrodes

Carbon fiber electrodes are crucial for the detection of catecholamine release from vesicles in single cells for amperometry measurements.  Here, we describe the techniques needed to generate low noise (&lt;0.5 pA) electrodes.  The techniques have been modified from published descriptions by previous researchers (1,2).  Electrodes are made by preparing carbon fibers and threading them individually into each capillary tube by using a vacuum with a filter to aspirate the fiber.  Next, the capillary tube with fiber is pulled by an electrode puller, creating two halves, each with a fine-pointed tip.  The electrodes are dipped in hot, liquid epoxy mixed with hardener to create an epoxy-glass seal.  Lastly, the electrodes are placed in an oven to cure the epoxy.  Careful handling of the electrodes is critical to ensure that they are made consistently and without damage.  This protocol shows how to fabricate and cut amperometric electrodes for recording from single cells.

This protocol describes how to generate carbon fiber electrodes. The electrodes are subsequently used to detect catecholamine release from vesicles with carbon fiber amperometry.

アンペロメトリー電極の作製

Carbon fiber electrodes are crucial for the detection of catecholamine release from vesicles in single cells for amperometry measurements.  Here, we ...

Antifouling Self-assembled Monolayers on Microelectrodes for Patterning Biomolecules

We present a procedure for forming a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) trimethoxysilane self-assembled monolayer (SAM) on a silicon substrate with gold microelectrodes. The PEG-SAM is formed in a single assembly step and prevents biofouling on silicon and gold surfaces. The SAM is used to coat microelectrodes patterned with standard, positive-tone lithography. Using the microtubule as an example, we apply a DC voltage to induce electrophoretic migration to the SAM-coated electrode in a reversible manner. A flow chamber is used for imaging the electrophoretic migration and microtubule patterning in situ using epifluorescence microscopy. This method is generally applicable to biomolecule patterning, as it employs electrophoresis to immobilize target molecules and thus does not require specific molecular interactions. Further, it avoids problems encountered when attempting to pattern the SAM molecules directly using lithographic techniques. The compatibility with electron beam lithography allows this method to be used to pattern biomolecules at the nanoscale.

We present a procedure for forming a poly(ethylene glycol) self-assembled monolayer (PEG-SAM) on a silicon substrate with gold microelectrodes. The PEG-SAM is formed in a single step and prevents biofouling on silicon and gold surfaces. Electrophoresis is then used for patterning biomolecules down to the nanoscale.

パターニングの生体分子の微小電極上に自己組織膜を汚

We present a procedure for forming a poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) trimethoxysilane self-assembled monolayer (SAM) on a silicon substrate with gold ...

Analyzing the Function of Small GTPases by Microinjection of Plasmids into Polarized Epithelial Cells

Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces the 'free' surfaces and the basolateral membrane is in contact with the substrate and neighboring cells. Both membrane domains are separated by tight junctions, which form a diffusion barrier. Apical-basolateral polarization can be recapitulated successfully in culture when epithelial cells such as Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells are seeded at high density on polycarbonate filters and cultured for several days 1 2. Establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is regulated by an array of small GTPases of the Ras superfamily such as RalA, Cdc42, Rab8, Rab10 and Rab13 3 4 5 6 7. Like all GTPases these proteins cycle between an inactive GDP-bound state and an active GTP-bound state. Specific mutations in the nucleotide binding regions interfere with this cycling 8. For example, Rab13T22N is permanently locked in the GDP-form and thus dubbed 'dominant negative', whereas Rab13Q67L can no longer hydrolyze GTP and is thus locked in a 'dominant active' state 7. To analyze their function in cells both dominant negative and dominant active alleles of GTPases are typically expressed at high levels to interfere with the function of the endogenous proteins 9. An elegant way to achieve high levels of overexpression in a short amount of time is to introduce the plasmids encoding the relevant proteins directly into the nuclei of polarized cells grown on filter supports using microinjection technique. This is often combined with the co-injection of reporter plasmids that encode plasma membrane receptors that are specifically sorted to the apical or basolateral domain. A cargo frequently used to analyze cargo sorting to the basolateral domain is a temperature sensitive allele of the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSVGts045) 10. This protein cannot fold properly at 39&deg;C and will thus be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) while the regulatory protein of interest is assembled in the cytosol. A shift to 31&deg;C will then allow VSVGts045 to fold properly, leave the ER and travel to the plasma membrane 11. This chase is typically performed in the presence of cycloheximide to prevent further protein synthesis leading to cleaner results. Here we describe in detail the procedure of microinjecting plasmids into polarized cells and subsequent incubations including temperature shifts that allow a comprehensive analysis of regulatory proteins involved in basolateral sorting.

This article details the procedures involved in overexpression and analysis of small GTPases in polarized epithelial cells using microinjection technique.

偏上皮細胞へのプラスミドのマイクロインジェクションによる低分子量GTPaseの機能を解析する

Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces ...

Detection of Nitric Oxide and Superoxide Radical Anion by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy from Cells using Spin Traps

Reactive nitrogen/oxygen species (ROS/RNS) at low concentrations play an important role in regulating cell function, signaling, and immune response but in unregulated concentrations are detrimental to cell viability1, 2. While living systems have evolved with endogenous and dietary antioxidant defense mechanisms to regulate ROS generation, ROS are produced continuously as natural by-products of normal metabolism of oxygen and can cause oxidative damage to biomolecules resulting in loss of protein function, DNA cleavage, or lipid peroxidation3, and ultimately to oxidative stress leading to cell injury or death4. 
Superoxide radical anion (O2&bull;-) is the major precursor of some of the most highly oxidizing species known to exist in biological systems such as peroxynitrite and hydroxyl radical. The generation of O2&bull;- signals the first sign of oxidative burst, and therefore, its detection and/or sequestration in biological systems is important. In this demonstration, O2&bull;- was generated from polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs). Through chemotactic stimulation with phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA), PMN generates O2&bull;- via activation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase5. 
Nitric oxide (NO) synthase which comes in three isoforms, as inducible-, neuronal- and endothelial-NOS, or iNOS, nNOS or eNOS, respectively, catalyzes the conversion of L- arginine to L-citrulline, using NADPH to produce NO6. Here, we generated NO from endothelial cells. Under oxidative stress conditions, eNOS for example can switch from producing NO to O2&bull;- in a process called uncoupling, which is believed to be caused by oxidation of heme7 or the co-factor, tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4)8.
There are only few reliable methods for the detection of free radicals in biological systems but are limited by specificity and sensitivity. Spin trapping is commonly used for the identification of free radicals and involves the addition reaction of a radical to a spin trap forming a persistent spin adduct which can be detected by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. The various radical adducts exhibit distinctive spectrum which can be used to identify the radicals being generated and can provide a wealth of information about the nature and kinetics of radical production9.
The cyclic nitrones, 5,5-dimethyl-pyrroline-N-oxide, DMPO10, the phosphoryl-substituted DEPMPO11, and the ester-substituted, EMPO12 and BMPO13, have been widely employed as spin traps--the latter spin traps exhibiting longer half-lives for O2&bull;- adduct. Iron (II)-N-methyl-D-glucamine dithiocarbamate, Fe(MGD)2 is commonly used to trap NO due to high rate of adduct formation and the high stability of the spin adduct14.

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy was employed to detect nitric oxide from bovine aortic endothelial cells and superoxide radical anion from human neutrophils using iron (II)-N-methyl-D-glucamine dithiocarbamate, Fe(MGD)2 and 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyroroline-N-oxide, DMPO, respectively.

一酸化窒素とスピントラップを使用して、細胞からの電子常磁性共鳴分光法によるスーパーオキシドアニオンラジカルの検出

Reactive nitrogen/oxygen species (ROS/RNS) at low concentrations play an important role in regulating cell function, signaling, and immune response but in ...

Visualization of Mitochondrial Respiratory Function using Cytochrome C Oxidase / Succinate Dehydrogenase (COX/SDH) Double-labeling Histochemistry

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) defects are an important cause of disease and may underlie aging and aging-related alterations 1,2. The mitochondrial theory of aging suggests a role for mtDNA mutations, which can alter bioenergetics homeostasis and cellular function, in the aging process 3. A wealth of evidence has been compiled in support of this theory 1,4, an example being the mtDNA mutator mouse 5; however, the precise role of mtDNA damage in aging is not entirely understood 6,7.
Observing the activity of respiratory enzymes is a straightforward approach for investigating mitochondrial dysfunction. Complex IV, or cytochrome c oxidase (COX), is essential for mitochondrial function. The catalytic subunits of COX are encoded by mtDNA and are essential for assembly of the complex (Figure 1). Thus, proper synthesis and function are largely based on mtDNA integrity 2. Although other respiratory complexes could be investigated, Complexes IV and II are the most amenable to histochemical examination 8,9. Complex II, or succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), is entirely encoded by nuclear DNA (Figure 1), and its activity is typically not affected by impaired mtDNA, although an increase might indicate mitochondrial biogenesis 10-12. The impaired mtDNA observed in mitochondrial diseases, aging, and age-related diseases often leads to the presence of cells with low or absent COX activity 2,12-14. Although COX and SDH activities can be investigated individually, the sequential double-labeling method 15,16 has proved to be advantageous in locating cells with mitochondrial dysfunction 12,17-21.
Many of the optimal constitutions of the assay have been determined, such as substrate concentration, electron acceptors/donors, intermediate electron carriers, influence of pH, and reaction time 9,22,23. 3,3'-diaminobenzidine (DAB) is an effective and reliable electron donor 22. In cells with functioning COX, the brown indamine polymer product will localize in mitochondrial cristae and saturate cells 22. Those cells with dysfunctional COX will therefore not be saturated by the DAB product, allowing for the visualization of SDH activity by reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT), an electron acceptor, to a blue formazan end product 9,24. Cytochrome c and sodium succinate substrates are added to normalize endogenous levels between control and diseased/mutant tissues 9. Catalase is added as a precaution to avoid possible contaminating reactions from peroxidase activity 9,22. Phenazine methosulfate (PMS), an intermediate electron carrier, is used in conjunction with sodium azide, a respiratory chain inhibitor, to increase the formation of the final reaction products 9,25. Despite this information, some critical details affecting the result of this seemly straightforward assay, in addition to specificity controls and advances in the technique, have not yet been presented.

Visualization of Mitochondrial Respiratory Function using Cytochrome C Oxidase / Succinate Dehydrogenase COX/SDH Double-labeling Histochemistry

The cytochrome c oxidase/sodium dehydrogenase (COX/SDH) double-labeling method allows for direct visualization of mitochondrial respiratory enzyme deficiencies in fresh-frozen tissue sections. This is a straightforward histochemical technique and is useful in investigating mitochondrial diseases, aging, and aging-related disorders.

シトクロムを使用してミトコンドリア呼吸機能の可視化 Cオキシダーゼ/コハク酸脱水素酵素（COX / SDH）二重標識組織化学

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) defects are an important cause of disease and may underlie aging and aging-related alterations 1,2. The mitochondrial theory of ...

Induction and Analysis of Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is essential for proper morphogenesis during development. Misregulation of this process has been implicated as a key event in fibrosis and the progression of carcinomas to a metastatic state. Understanding the processes that underlie EMT is imperative for the early diagnosis and clinical control of these disease states. Reliable induction of EMT in vitro is a useful tool for drug discovery as well as to identify common gene expression signatures for diagnostic purposes. Here we demonstrate a straightforward method for the induction of EMT in a variety of cell types. Methods for the analysis of cells pre- and post-EMT induction by immunocytochemistry are also included. Additionally, we demonstrate the effectiveness of this method through antibody-based array analysis and migration/invasion assays.

A straightforward method is described for the induction of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) in a variety of cell types. Methods for the analysis of cells in EMT states by immunocytochemistry are included.

間葉転換を誘導し、上皮の分析

Epithelial  to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is essential for proper morphogenesis during  development. Misregulation of this  process has been implicated ...

A Functional Assay for Gap Junctional Examination; Electroporation of Adherent Cells on Indium-Tin Oxide

In this technique, cells are cultured on a glass slide that is partly coated with indium-tin oxide (ITO), a transparent, electrically conductive material. A variety of molecules, such as peptides or oligonucleotides can be introduced into essentially 100% of the cells in a non-traumatic manner.&#160; Here, we describe how it can be used to study intercellular, gap junctional communication. Lucifer yellow penetrates into the cells when an electric pulse, applied to the conductive surface on which they are growing, causes pores to form through the cell membrane. This is electroporation. Cells growing on the nonconductive&#160;glass surface immediately adjacent to the electroporated region do not take up Lucifer yellow by electroporation but do acquire the fluorescent dye as it is passed to them via gap junctions that link them to the electroporated cells. The results of the transfer of dye from cell to cell can be observed microscopically under fluorescence illumination. This technique allows for precise quantitation of gap junctional communication. In addition, it can be used for the introduction of peptides or other non-permeant molecules, and the transfer of small electroporated peptides via gap junctions to inhibit the signal in the adjacent, non-electroporated cells is a powerful demonstration of signal inhibition.

This presentation demonstrates a method whereby electroporation of adherent, cultured cells is used for the study of intercellular, junctional communication, while the cells grow on a slide coated with conductive and transparent indium-tin oxide.

ギャップ結合審査のための機能アッセイ;インジウム - スズ酸化物に対する接着した細胞のエレクトロポレーション

In this technique, cells are cultured on a glass slide that is partly coated with indium-tin oxide (ITO), a transparent, electrically conductive material. ...

Nephrotoxin Microinjection in Zebrafish to Model Acute Kidney Injury

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid decline in renal function and development of the clinical syndrome known as acute kidney injury (AKI). Pharmacological agents used to treat medical circumstances ranging from bacterial infection to cancer, when administered individually or in combination with other drugs, can initiate AKI. Zebrafish are a useful animal model to study the chemical effects on renal function in vivo, as they form an embryonic kidney comprised of nephron functional units that are conserved with higher vertebrates, including humans. Further, zebrafish can be utilized to perform genetic and chemical screens, which provide opportunities to elucidate the cellular and molecular facets of AKI and develop therapeutic strategies such as the identification of nephroprotective molecules. Here, we demonstrate how microinjection into the zebrafish embryo can be utilized as a paradigm for nephrotoxin studies.

Renal injuries incurred from nephrotoxins, which include drugs ranging from antibiotics to chemotherapeutics, can result in complex disorders whose pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. This protocol demonstrates how zebrafish can be used for disease modeling of these conditions, which can be applied to the identification of renoprotective measures.

ゼブラフィッシュにおける腎毒素マイクロインジェクションは急性腎障害をモデルに

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid ...