作者は彼らの役に立つコメントについてマッティS.Hämäläinen、リラZölleiと3匿名の査読者に感謝したいと思います。資金源：R00DC010196（AKCL）; T32DC000018（EDL）; T32DC005361（RKM）。

1。解剖学的データの収集と処理<ol><li>被写体の1磁化準備急速勾配エコー（MPRAGE）MRIスキャンを取得する。これは、特定のスキャンプロトコルが使用されているかに応じて5〜10分かかる場合があります。 </li><li> FLASHの配列が標準MPRAGEシーケンス1から別の組織のコントラストを提供するように脳波データは、逆イメージング分析のために使用されている場合、2種類の追加、高速で低角度ショット（フラッシュ）MRIスキャンを（フリップ角= 5°、30°）を取得。 </li><li>皮質表面を再構築し、個々のM /脳波双極子源領域を設定するFreeSurferソフトウェア（表を参照）2、3を使用します。 <ol><li>このソース領域はMPRAGEスキャンから分割グレー/白質の境界に制限されます。各半球は約1mmで離隔約10万潜在的な頂点が含まれています。双極子振幅推定（下記参照）については、半球あたり約3000ダイポールをもたらす7ミリメートルのグリッド間隔を使用します。 </li></ol></li><li>再建する多国籍企業（表を参照）、FreeSurferを使用MPRAGEやFLASH画像から皮膚、頭蓋骨の外側と内側の頭蓋骨面。三層境界要素モデル（BEM）を生成するためにこれらの面を使用しています。 </li></ol> 2。 M /脳波データ集録<ol><li> M /脳波記録の件名を準備します。 <ol><li>電図と参照電極の準備だけでなく、対象者の基準ランドマーク、ヘッド位置インジケータコイル（HPI）およびEEG電極のデジタル化の詳細については、Liu ら 4を参照してください。 </li></ol></li><li>一度件名はHPIのコイルを使用してヘッド位置を測定し、脳磁図に装着されている。 </li><li>記録を開始します。聴覚と視覚刺激のプレゼンテーションを開始します。 <ol><li>多くのハードウェアおよびソフトウェア·ソリューションは、刺激提示（ 例えば 。、プレゼンテーション、電子首相）を実行するために利用されています。我々は、視覚秒間Psychtoolbox 5で、スタンピング聴覚刺激提示およびトリガをタッカー·デイビス·テクノロジーズRZ6を使用timulusプレゼンテーションは、MATLABによって制御両方。聴覚と視覚の待ち時間画面に接続されたマイクとフォトダイオードを使用して、その後（そのネイティブの解像度にプレゼンテーションのプロジェクターを設定する必要になるかもしれない）に観察可能なジッタがない確実にテストを実験する前のタイミングの整合性を確保するのに役立ちます。 </li></ol></li><li>行動のタスクを実行するときに、被写体は、光ボタンボックスを介して聴覚と視覚刺激に応答します。 </li><li>オフライン分析のために全ての刺激、実験パラメータおよびデータ·ファイルを保存します。 </li></ol> 3。 MRIスキャンおよびデータ処理を使用したM /脳波共同登録<ol><li> MNEソフトウェアを使用して、デジタイザのデータと被験者の再構築されたMRIの頭部モデルをロードします。共同登録プロセスを開始し、座標変換（ 図2）を完了するために、自動アライメントプロシージャを使用して続行する基準ランドマークを選択してください。 </li><li>ソースspに各双極子の位置を関連付けるために各センサーの場所を持つエース、三層BEMを進め解を計算するために記録されたHPIのデータ（2.2参照）を組み合わせる（1.4参照） </li><li>記録されたすべてのM / EEGデータを点検し、非常に高い分散を持っているか、完全に平坦であるチャネルを識別します。悪いチャネルとして、これらのチャネルを設定します。 </li><li>周囲の環境分野の汚染や、目が点滅し、心臓の成果物に関連するものなど、他の望ましくない生理的信号、由来空間フィールドパターンを投影するか、分離する信号空間投影6または他のノイズ低減技術（例えば、信号空間の分離7など）を使用（ 図3）。 <ol><li>さらに増加するタイム·ドメイン·アーティファクト除去（ 例えば 。、チャネルのスパイクに起因する異常に高い振幅の信号が含まれている時代を除去する）と周波数領域のアーチファクト除去（ 例えば 。、50または60Hzライン周波数でフィルタリングバンドノッチ）を適用信号対雑音比。 </li></ol></li><li>サブジェクト（ 例えば 。、前各試験の開始から200 msの期間）任意のタスクを実行されなかったベースライン期間を特定します。 （また、共分散行列とも呼ばれる）雑音推定値を得るために、これらのベースラインのエポックの平均を生成します。 </li><li>興味のあるエポック（ 例えば 、唯一の正しい行動応答にエポックを収集）を識別し、実験的なコントラスト（ 例えば 、もともと手掛かりとして、被験者が反対半視野に彼らの聴覚注意を切り替えたことに関連付けられているエポックのための条件を定義する- 。 &quot;スイッチ&quot;の条件-対主題&quot;ホールド&quot;状態） - オリジナルの半視野に注意を維持する。定義された条件のそれぞれについて、平均応答を生成します。 <ol><li>これらの平均値は、ベースライン補正されたり（8を参照）実験パラメータに依存しないことができ、ここに示されているデータは、ベースライン補正されています。 </li></ol></li><li>取得するために共分散行列（3.5）と計算された前方の溶液（3.2）を組み合わせる元空間内電流双極子推定にセンサーの測定値を関連付ける皮質制約最小ノルム逆数演算を配布しました。 <ol><li>あなたはどちら約制約または皮質法線方向9に双極子の向きを修正することができます。 </li></ol></li><li>各実験条件（ 図4）のための分散型ダイポール推定値（ すなわち 。、時間内のソース·スペース内の各ダイポール位置で現在の推定値）の&quot;脳の映画&quot;を生成。 <ol><li>あなたの実験デザインの時間特性に応じて、非重複時間的なウィンドウを使用して現在の推定値を平均することによって、時間のあなたのデータをbinことができます。 </li></ol></li></ol> 4。共通面ベースの座標系に基づいて統計的推論<ol><li>モーフ最適に個々の脳溝-GYを揃えサーフェスベースの座標系に基づいて一般的な（平均的な）皮質の空間に各科目の &quot;脳の映画&quot;RALパターン3。これは、私たちはすべての被験者間で比較や平均皮質活動することができます。 （ 図5）。 </li><li>さまざまな統計的推論のアプローチがあります。我々はここで3つのアプローチが強調表示されます。ソフトウェア·パッケージに実装されていないアプローチは、我々はノンパラメトリック時空間クラスタリング順列テストを実行するには、MATLABを使用しています。カスタムソフトウェアの私達の例を使用して書き込むことができます（ノンパラメトリッククラスタリング、4.5）の時間に、これらのデータを高次元（空間X時間×科目）にもかかわらず、これらのアプローチのすべてが（4.3アプローチROI）を秒単位で標準の現代的なデスクトップコンピュータのハードウェアを使用して実行できます。 </li><li> 関心領域（ROI）のアプローチ <ol><li>あなたは、そして/または、 例えば、（機能的に（ 例えば 。、自動parcellationアルゴリズム1によって定義される）解剖学的にROIを定義することができます、機能局在の作業を記録することによって、そのような剛/ oculomotoを識別するための碁サッケードタスクとしてR領域）。 </li><li>あなたはさらに、あなたの実験パラダイム（ 例えば 、音刺激の発症前と直後の期間）に適した特定の時間の関心に分析を制限することができます。また、時系列分析に関連した他の統計的推論を使用することができます。 </li></ol></li><li> 全脳ボンフェローニまたはFalse-ディスカバリー·レート（FDR）の補正 <ol><li>あなたは、全脳、すべてのリアルタイム解析が必要な場合は、ボンフェローニまたはFDR補正を採用しています。 </li><li>ほぼ正規分布したデータに対して適切なテストなどのt検定などの統計、または被験者内分散分析を用いて、各双極子の位置と各時点での統計マップを生成します。推定値の相関の補正（そのような保守的な温室Geisser補正など）と組み合わせた場合、例えば、固定長ダイポール源10の多国籍企業の推定値の動的な統計パラメータマッピングからzスコアを使用することができます。 </li><li>ボンフェローニのために補正は、比較の回数（時間ポイントの数を乗じた双極子の数）で割った0.05の有意水準で有意な閾値処理することによって時空点を得る。少ない保守的なアプローチについては、FDRのp値の補正11を使用しています 。 </li></ol></li><li> ノンパラメトリック時空間クラスタリング <ol><li> Bonferroni補正未満保守的でありながら、大規模で一貫性のある空間的、時間的な活性化の領域を見つけるために、このメソッドを（12の単純な拡張子に基づいて）を使用し、家族的なエラー·レートを制御することにより、FDRはより私を統計誤差を入力しにくい。 <ol><li>このアプローチは順列やモンテカルロリサンプリング技法を使用しているので、データの正規性の仮定に依存しており、唯一の条件のラベルは、帰無仮説の下で交換可能であることを前提としていません。それは前の2つの方法より計算集約的であるが、それはまだ上に時間で行うことができます現代的なデスクトップコンピュータのハードウェアを使用して、単一のマシン。 </li></ol></li><li>各双極子の位置とそのようなt-検定などの適切な検定統計量を使用して、各時点での統計的なマップを生成します。 </li><li>予備的有意性の閾値での閾値このマップ、 例えば、p &lt;0.05。 </li><li>クラスタ時空間近接度に基づいて、これらの推定上の重要なポイント、 例えば 。 5ミリ秒と互いの5ミリメートル測地距離内の重要なポイントは、同じクラスタに配置されます。ハイパーボリュームまたは総意義を（ たとえば 、クラスタ内のポイントのT-スコアの合計）を使用して得られた各クラスタのスコアを獲得。 </li><li>最大の統計で標準順列リサンプリング（またはモンテカルロ大規模なデータセットのためにリサンプリング、被験者の例 。数N&gt; 10、計算に保存するの）テストを実行します（順列試験例12を参照）。簡単に説明すると、被験者のランダムなサブセット（0からNまでの任意選択科目）について、再ラベルバイン条件グラムは統計マップを取得する前に比べて、新たな統計地図上でクラスタリングを実行し、その再ラベルに対する最大クラスタのスコアを取得します。最大統計量の分布を得るために2 Nの順列までの新しいランダムrelabelings上で、この手順を実行し、すべての2 N個の可能relabelingsを実行するには、並べ替え検定をもたらすとモンテカルロ（またはランダムもたらすより少ない2 N relabelingsのランダムなサブセットを利用）順列テスト。 </li><li>最大クラスタサイズが元のクラスタなどのそれを上回っていた時間の割合を決定することによって、与えられた元のクラスタ（元のラベルから）の重要性を取得します。最大統計クラスターの95％を超えていたクラスタが重要宣言することができます。 <ol><li> MEG分散ソースイメージングにおける統計的推論に関する詳細な議論については、13を参照してください。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li>結果のデータファイルは、viことができます<html>ネイティブすなわち時空間皮質見積もり、STCのファイルを格納するために多国籍企業のソフトウェアが利用するフォーマットを使用して、などの多くの方法でsualized。これらは、重要な領域に対応して製造することができるラベルと一緒に、MATLABやPythonのために提供MNEツールボックスを使用して生成できます。 </li></ol> 5。代表的な結果 図6は、図4で説明した行動パラダイムを用いて代表的な結果のセットを示しています。ノンパラメトリックな時空間クラスタリング手順（4.5）を使用して、右FEF被験者が標準タスク（ 図6左）に比べて方向転換タスクを実行しているときに重要であることが判明した。 ROIのアプローチ（4.3）を使用して、右FEFの時間経過は、次の2つの条件が大幅に異なっている期間とともに表示されます。 p_upload/4262/4262fig1.jpg &quot;/&gt; 皮質に制約のある最小ノルム双極子推定（ 参照 、Liu ら 、2010年の図1）を用いて、 &quot;脳の映画&quot;を生成する1。ワークフロー図 。 <img alt="図2" src="/files/ftp_upload/4262/4262fig2.jpg" /> 一人の被験者のMRI座標空間上にEEGチャネルとHPI場所共同登録を容易にするために使用される図2：多国籍企業のソフトウェア。 <img alt="図3" src="/files/ftp_upload/4262/4262fig3.jpg" /> （3）脳磁図データの前と心臓（オレンジ色で強調表示されている）と目が点滅します（青緑色で強調表示されている）アーティファクトおよびライン周波数を除去するためにローパスフィルタを削除するには、SSPを使用した後の図 。 <a href="http://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/4262/4262fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">拡大図を表示するには、ここをクリックしてください</a> 。 <pクラス= &quot;jove_content&quot;のfo：キープtogether.withinページ= &quot;always&quot;を&gt; <img alt="図4" src="/files/ftp_upload/4262/4262fig4.jpg" /> これは次のようになります。被写体のネイティブ皮質スペースと1つの実験パラダイム（注における視聴覚プレゼンテーションのタイミング（600 msおよび-600ミリ秒で発表された視覚刺激で発表された聴覚刺激で）上の図は、4 &quot;脳の映画&quot;最後のムービークリップ内のムービーとして提示） <img alt="図5" src="/files/ftp_upload/4262/4262fig5.jpg" /> 図5被験者のネイティブ皮質空間上と共通の皮質の空間に変身した後にマップされた仮想的な投資収益率との比較。 <img alt="図6" src="/files/ftp_upload/4262/4262fig6.jpg" /> 図6つの実験条件に関連付けられている代表的な時空クラスタおよびタイムコースtionsはテストされています。

<ol>
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S., Friederici, A. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Localization+of+the+syntactic+mismatch+negativity+in+the+temporal+cortex:+An+MEG+study.">Localization of the syntactic mismatch negativity in the temporal cortex: An MEG study.</a> NeuroImage. 48, 590-600 (2009).</li><li>Baillet, S., Hansen, P., Kringelbach, M., Salmelin, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Dowser+in+the+Fields:+Searching+for+MEG+Sources.">The Dowser in the Fields: Searching for MEG Sources.</a> MEG: An Introduction to Methods. , 83-123 (2010).</li><li>Gutschalk, A., Micheyl, C., Oxenham, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+correlates+of+auditory+perceptual+awareness+under+informational+masking.">Neural correlates of auditory perceptual awareness under informational masking.</a> PLoS Biology. 6, e138 (2008).</li></ol>

特別な利害関係は宣言されません。

取得MEG / EEGデータから皮質への双極子の活性化を推定するために、我々は適切な解剖学的および生理学的に音の制約が適用されない限り、安定したユニークなソリューションを持っていない逆問題を、解決する必要があります。 MRIを用いて、我々の推定基準として最小ノルムを採用し、個々の科目について取得解剖学的制約を使用して、我々はセンサ測定値と一致している逆の皮質電流源推...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 機器/ソフトウェアの名前 </td><td> 会社/ソース </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 306チャンネルVectorview MEGシステム</td><td> Eleka-Neuromag株式会社、 </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 1.5-T Avanto MRIスキャナ</td><td>シーメンスメディカルソリューションズ</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> FreeSurfer </td><td></td><td></td><td> <a href="http://freesurfer.net/" target="_blank">http://freesurfer.net/</a> </td></tr><tr><td> MNEソフトウェア</td><td></td><td></td><td> <a href="http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/martinos/userInfo/data/sofMNE.php" target="_blank">http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/martinos/userInfo/data/sofMNE.php</a> </td></tr><tr><td>脳波電極</td><td>脳製品、Easycap社</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 3Space FASTRAKシステム</td><td> Polhemus社</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>光学ボタンボックス（FIU-932） </td><td>現在の設計</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

mapping cortical dynamics using simultaneous meg/eeg and anatomically-constrained minimum-norm estimates: an auditory attention example

磁気と脳波（MEG / EEG）は、カクテルパーティーの異なる音に通うように動的知覚と認知作業に関与皮質ネットワークを調査するために特に適した高時間分解能を提供する技術を神経画像診断されています。過去に多くの研究が、。 すなわち 、唯一のセンサレベルで記録されたデータを用いて磁場や外と頭皮上の電位が記録された、通常は刺激提示に時間ロックされている活動に焦点を当てている。た空間的にも時間的に単離·同定することができます異なる双極子パターンの数が少ないだけであるとき、事象関連フィールド/潜在的なこのタイプの分析は、特に有用である。あるいは、解剖学的情報を利用することによって、これらの異なるフィールドパターンは皮質上の電流源として定位させることができる。しかし、特定の刺激（ 例えば 。に時間ロックされない場合があり、より持続的な応答のために手掛かり聴覚機能に基づいて2つの同時提示音声の数字の1を聞くための準備中）、または未知のアプリオリ複数の空間の場所に分散してもよいし、分散した大脳皮質の補充は十分に、限られた数を使用してキャプチャされない場合がありますフォーカル源。 ここでは、センサ情報と最小ノルム推定（MNE）の使用を通して皮質上の双極子活性化との関係を確立するために、個々の解剖学的MRIデータを採用して手順を説明します。この逆イメージングアプローチは、私たちに分散ソース解析するためのツールを提供しています。例示的な目的のために、我々はFreeSurferと多国籍企業のソフトウェア、両方自由に利用できるを使用して、すべての手順を説明します。我々は、私たちは、M /脳波センサー上に皮質に分布する双極子によって引き起こされる予想されるフィールドパターンを関連付けることができフォワードモデルを生成するために必要なMRIシーケンスと分析手順を要約します。 NEXトンは、環境的および生理学的汚染物からセンサデータのノイズ除去で私たちを容易にするために必要なプロセスを通っていきます。我々は、それによって各実験条件に関連する脳表面上の皮質双極子活性化の時系列（または &quot;脳の映画&quot;）の家族を生産、皮質の空間にMEG / EEGセンサーデータを組み合わせると写像するための手順を概説します。最後に、私たちは、私たちは共通の皮質の座標空間に基づいて被験者集団（ すなわち 。、グループレベルの分析を行う）の向こう側に科学的な推論を作ることを可能にするいくつかの統計的手法をハイライト表示されます。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Mapping Cortical Dynamics Using Simultaneous MEG/EEG and Anatomically-constrained Minimum-norm Estimates: an Auditory Attention Example at JoVE.com

Mapping Cortical Dynamics Using Simultaneous MEG/EEG and Anatomically-constrained Minimum-norm Estimates: an Auditory Attention Example

我々は、磁気共鳴画像法（MRI）によって捕捉解剖学的情報と組み合わせ磁気と脳波（MEG / EEG）は、聴覚注意に関連付けられた皮質ネットワークのダイナミクスをマッピングするために使用します。

同時MEG / EEGおよび解剖学的に制約のある最小ノルム推定値を使用してマッピング皮質ダイナミクス：聴覚注意の例

Magneto- and electroencephalography (MEG/EEG) are neuroimaging techniques that provide a high temporal resolution particularly suitable to investigate the ...

mapping-cortical-dynamics-using-simultaneous-megeeg-anatomically

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

14.5K ビュー.  University of Washington. 我々は、磁気共鳴画像法（MRI）によって捕捉解剖学的情報と組み合わせ磁気と脳波（MEG / EEG）は、聴覚注意に関連付けられた皮質ネットワークのダイナミクスをマッピングするために使用します。

ビデオ: Mapping Cortical Dynamics Using Simultaneous MEG/EEG and Anatomically-constrained Minimum-norm Estimates: an Auditory Attention Example

Functional Mapping with Simultaneous MEG and EEG

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to locate and determine the temporal evolution in brain areas involved in the processing of simple sensory stimuli. We will use somatosensory stimuli to locate the hand somatosensory areas, auditory stimuli to locate the auditory cortices, visual stimuli in four quadrants of the visual field to locate the early visual areas. These type of experiments are used for functional mapping in epileptic and brain tumor patients to locate eloquent cortices. In basic neuroscience similar experimental protocols are used to study the orchestration of cortical activity. The acquisition protocol includes quality assurance procedures, subject preparation for the combined MEG/EEG study, and acquisition of evoked-response data with somatosensory, auditory, and visual stimuli. We also demonstrate analysis of the data using the equivalent current dipole model and cortically-constrained minimum-norm estimates. Anatomical MRI data are employed in the analysis for visualization and for deriving boundaries of tissue boundaries for forward modeling and cortical location and orientation constraints for the minimum-norm estimates.

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to map brain areas involved in the processing of simple sensory stimuli.

同時MEGおよびEEGとの機能的マッピング

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to locate and determine the temporal evolution in brain areas involved in the ...

神経科学

Preparation and Culture of Chicken Auditory Brainstem Slices

The chicken auditory brainstem is a well-established model system that has been widely used to study the anatomy and physiology of auditory processing at discreet periods of development 1-4 as well as mechanisms for temporal coding in the central nervous system 5-7.
Here we present a method to prepare chicken auditory brainstem slices that can be used for acute experimental procedures or to culture organotypic slices for long-term experimental manipulations.
The chicken auditory brainstem is composed of nucleus angularis, magnocellularis, laminaris and superior olive. These nuclei are responsible for binaural sound processing and single coronal slice preparations preserve the entire circuitry. Ultimately, organotypic slice cultures can provide the opportunity to manipulate several developmental parameters such as synaptic activity, expression of pre and postsynaptic components, expression of aspects controlling excitability and differential gene expression
This approach can be used to broaden general knowledge about neural circuit development, refinement and maturation.

The chicken auditory brainstem is comprised of nuclei responsible for binaural sound processing. A single coronal slice preparation maintains the entire circuitry while the cultured approach provides a unique preparation to study the development of neuronal structure and auditory function at the molecular, cellular and network levels.

チキンの聴性脳幹スライスの準備と文化

The chicken auditory brainstem is a well-established model system that has been widely used to study the anatomy and physiology of auditory processing at ...

Recording Human Electrocorticographic (ECoG) Signals for Neuroscientific Research and Real-time Functional Cortical Mapping

Neuroimaging studies of human cognitive, sensory, and motor processes are usually based on noninvasive techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography or functional magnetic-resonance imaging. These techniques have either inherently low temporal or low spatial resolution, and suffer from low signal-to-noise ratio and/or poor high-frequency sensitivity. Thus, they are suboptimal for exploring the short-lived spatio-temporal dynamics of many of the underlying brain processes. In contrast, the invasive technique of electrocorticography (ECoG) provides brain signals that have an exceptionally high signal-to-noise ratio, less susceptibility to artifacts than EEG, and a high spatial and temporal resolution (i.e., &lt;1 cm/&lt;1 millisecond, respectively). ECoG involves measurement of electrical brain signals using electrodes that are implanted subdurally on the surface of the brain. Recent studies have shown that ECoG amplitudes in certain frequency bands carry substantial information about task-related activity, such as motor execution and planning1, auditory processing2 and visual-spatial attention3. Most of this information is captured in the high gamma range (around 70-110 Hz). Thus, gamma activity has been proposed as a robust and general indicator of local cortical function1-5. ECoG can also reveal functional connectivity and resolve finer task-related spatial-temporal dynamics, thereby advancing our understanding of large-scale cortical processes. It has especially proven useful for advancing brain-computer interfacing (BCI) technology for decoding a user's intentions to enhance or improve communication6 and control7. Nevertheless, human ECoG data are often hard to obtain because of the risks and limitations of the invasive procedures involved, and the need to record within the constraints of clinical settings. Still, clinical monitoring to localize epileptic foci offers a unique and valuable opportunity to collect human ECoG data. We describe our methods for collecting recording ECoG, and demonstrate how to use these signals for important real-time applications such as clinical mapping and brain-computer interfacing. Our example uses the BCI2000 software platform8,9 and the SIGFRIED10 method, an application for real-time mapping of brain functions. This procedure yields information that clinicians can subsequently use to guide the complex and laborious process of functional mapping by electrical stimulation.
Prerequisites and Planning:
Patients with drug-resistant partial epilepsy may be candidates for resective surgery of an epileptic focus to minimize the frequency of seizures. Prior to resection, the patients undergo monitoring using subdural electrodes for two purposes: first, to localize the epileptic focus, and second, to identify nearby critical brain areas (i.e., eloquent cortex) where resection could result in long-term functional deficits. To implant electrodes, a craniotomy is performed to open the skull. Then, electrode grids and/or strips are placed on the cortex, usually beneath the dura. A typical grid has a set of 8 x 8 platinum-iridium electrodes of 4 mm diameter (2.3 mm exposed surface) embedded in silicon with an inter-electrode distance of 1cm. A strip typically contains 4 or 6 such electrodes in a single line. The locations for these grids/strips are planned by a team of neurologists and neurosurgeons, and are based on previous EEG monitoring, on a structural MRI of the patient's brain, and on relevant factors of the patient's history. Continuous recording over a period of 5-12 days serves to localize epileptic foci, and electrical stimulation via the implanted electrodes allows clinicians to map eloquent cortex. At the end of the monitoring period, explantation of the electrodes and therapeutic resection are performed together in one procedure.
In addition to its primary clinical purpose, invasive monitoring also provides a unique opportunity to acquire human ECoG data for neuroscientific research. The decision to include a prospective patient in the research is based on the planned location of their electrodes, on the patient's performance scores on neuropsychological assessments, and on their informed consent, which is predicated on their understanding that participation in research is optional and is not related to their treatment. As with all research involving human subjects, the research protocol must be approved by the hospital's institutional review board. The decision to perform individual experimental tasks is made day-by-day, and is contingent on the patient's endurance and willingness to participate. Some or all of the experiments may be prevented by problems with the clinical state of the patient, such as post-operative facial swelling, temporary aphasia, frequent seizures, post-ictal fatigue and confusion, and more general pain or discomfort.
At the Epilepsy Monitoring Unit at Albany Medical Center in Albany, New York, clinical monitoring is implemented around the clock using a 192-channel Nihon-Kohden Neurofax monitoring system. Research recordings are made in collaboration with the Wadsworth Center of the New York State Department of Health in Albany. Signals from the ECoG electrodes are fed simultaneously to the research and the clinical systems via splitter connectors. To ensure that the clinical and research systems do not interfere with each other, the two systems typically use separate grounds. In fact, an epidural strip of electrodes is sometimes implanted to provide a ground for the clinical system. Whether research or clinical recording system, the grounding electrode is chosen to be distant from the predicted epileptic focus and from cortical areas of interest for the research. Our research system consists of eight synchronized 16-channel g.USBamp amplifier/digitizer units (g.tec, Graz, Austria). These were chosen because they are safety-rated and FDA-approved for invasive recordings, they have a very low noise-floor in the high-frequency range in which the signals of interest are found, and they come with an SDK that allows them to be integrated with custom-written research software. In order to capture the high-gamma signal accurately, we acquire signals at 1200Hz sampling rate-considerably higher than that of the typical EEG experiment or that of many clinical monitoring systems. A built-in low-pass filter automatically prevents aliasing of signals higher than the digitizer can capture. The patient's eye gaze is tracked using a monitor with a built-in Tobii T-60 eye-tracking system (Tobii Tech., Stockholm, Sweden). Additional accessories such as joystick, bluetooth Wiimote (Nintendo Co.), data-glove (5th Dimension Technologies), keyboard, microphone, headphones, or video camera are connected depending on the requirements of the particular experiment.
Data collection, stimulus presentation, synchronization with the different input/output accessories, and real-time analysis and visualization are accomplished using our BCI2000 software8,9. BCI2000 is a freely available general-purpose software system for real-time biosignal data acquisition, processing and feedback. It includes an array of pre-built modules that can be flexibly configured for many different purposes, and that can be extended by researchers' own code in C++, MATLAB or Python. BCI2000 consists of four modules that communicate with each other via a network-capable protocol: a Source module that handles the acquisition of brain signals from one of 19 different hardware systems from different manufacturers; a Signal Processing module that extracts relevant ECoG features and translates them into output signals; an Application module that delivers stimuli and feedback to the subject; and the Operator module that provides a graphical interface to the investigator.
A number of different experiments may be conducted with any given patient. The priority of experiments will be determined by the location of the particular patient's electrodes. However, we usually begin our experimentation using the SIGFRIED (SIGnal modeling For Realtime Identification and Event Detection) mapping method, which detects and displays significant task-related activity in real time. The resulting functional map allows us to further tailor subsequent experimental protocols and may also prove as a useful starting point for traditional mapping by electrocortical stimulation (ECS).
Although ECS mapping remains the gold standard for predicting the clinical outcome of resection, the process of ECS mapping is time consuming and also has other problems, such as after-discharges or seizures. Thus, a passive functional mapping technique may prove valuable in providing an initial estimate of the locus of eloquent cortex, which may then be confirmed and refined by ECS. The results from our passive SIGFRIED mapping technique have been shown to exhibit substantial concurrence with the results derived using ECS mapping10.
The protocol described in this paper establishes a general methodology for gathering human ECoG data, before proceeding to illustrate how experiments can be initiated using the BCI2000 software platform. Finally, as a specific example, we describe how to perform passive functional mapping using the BCI2000-based SIGFRIED system.

Recording Human Electrocorticographic ECoG Signals for Neuroscientific Research and Real-time Functional Cortical Mapping

We present a method for collecting electrocorticographic signals for research purposes from humans who are undergoing invasive epilepsy monitoring. We show how to use the BCI2000 software platform for data collection, signal processing and stimulus presentation. Specifically, we demonstrate SIGFRIED, a BCI2000-based tool for real-time functional brain mapping.

神経科学の研究とリアルタイム機能皮質マッピングのためのヒトElectrocorticographic（ECOG）信号を記録

Neuroimaging studies of human cognitive, sensory, and motor processes are usually based on noninvasive techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG), ...

Simultaneous Whole-cell Recordings from Photoreceptors and Second-order Neurons in an Amphibian Retinal Slice Preparation

One of the central tasks in retinal neuroscience is to understand the circuitry of retinal neurons and how those connections are responsible for shaping the signals transmitted to the brain. Photons are detected in the retina by rod and cone photoreceptors, which convert that energy into an electrical signal, transmitting it to other retinal neurons, where it is processed and communicated to central targets in the brain via the optic nerve. Important early insights into retinal circuitry and visual processing came from the histological studies of Cajal1,2 and, later, from electrophysiological recordings of the spiking activity of retinal ganglion cells - the output cells of the retina3,4.
A detailed understanding of visual processing in the retina requires an understanding of the signaling at each step in the pathway from photoreceptor to retinal ganglion cell. However, many retinal cell types are buried deep in the tissue and therefore relatively inaccessible for electrophysiological recording. This limitation can be overcome by working with vertical slices, in which cells residing within each of the retinal layers are clearly visible and accessible for electrophysiological recording.
Here, we describe a method for making vertical sections of retinas from larval tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum). While this preparation was originally developed for recordings with sharp microelectrodes5,6, we describe a method for dual whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from photoreceptors and second-order horizontal and bipolar cells in which we manipulate the photoreceptor's membrane potential while simultaneously recording post-synaptic responses in horizontal or bipolar cells. The photoreceptors of the tiger salamander are considerably larger than those of mammalian species, making this an ideal preparation in which to undertake this technically challenging experimental approach. These experiments are described with an eye toward probing the signaling properties of the synaptic ribbon - a specialized synaptic structure found in a only a handful of neurons, including rod and cone photoreceptors, that is well suited for maintaining a high rate of tonic neurotransmitter release7,8 - and how it contributes to the unique signaling properties of this first retinal synapse.

We describe the preparation of thin retinal slices from aquatic tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) and explain how we use these slices to study synaptic processing in the retina by obtaining dual whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from photoreceptors and second-order horizontal and bipolar cells.

両生類網膜スライス標本における感光体と2次ニューロンからの同時ホールセル録音

One of the central tasks in retinal neuroscience  is to understand the circuitry of retinal neurons and how those connections are  responsible for shaping ...

Functional Imaging of Auditory Cortex in Adult Cats using High-field fMRI

Current knowledge of sensory processing in the mammalian auditory system is mainly derived from electrophysiological studies in a variety of animal models, including monkeys, ferrets, bats, rodents, and cats. In order to draw suitable parallels between human and animal models of auditory function, it is important to establish a bridge between human functional imaging studies and animal electrophysiological studies. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is an established, minimally invasive method of measuring broad patterns of hemodynamic activity across different regions of the cerebral cortex. This technique is widely used to probe sensory function in the human brain, is a useful tool in linking studies of auditory processing in both humans and animals and has been successfully used to investigate auditory function in monkeys and rodents. The following protocol describes an experimental procedure for investigating auditory function in anesthetized adult cats by measuring stimulus-evoked hemodynamic changes in auditory cortex using fMRI. This method facilitates comparison of the hemodynamic responses across different models of auditory function thus leading to a better understanding of species-independent features of the mammalian auditory cortex.

Functional studies of the auditory system in mammals have traditionally been conducted using spatially-focused techniques such as electrophysiological recordings. The following protocol describes a method of visualizing large-scale patterns of evoked hemodynamic activity in the cat auditory cortex using functional magnetic resonance imaging.

ハイフィールドのfMRIを使って大人の猫における聴覚皮質の機能イメージング

Current knowledge of sensory processing in the mammalian auditory system is mainly derived from electrophysiological studies in a variety of animal ...

Optogenetic Stimulation of the Auditory Nerve

Direct electrical stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) by cochlear implants (CIs) enables open speech comprehension in the majority of implanted deaf subjects1-6. Nonetheless, sound coding with current CIs has poor frequency and intensity resolution due to broad current spread from each electrode contact activating a large number of SGNs along the tonotopic axis of the cochlea7-9. Optical stimulation is proposed as an alternative to electrical stimulation that promises spatially more confined activation of SGNs and, hence, higher frequency resolution of coding. In recent years, direct infrared illumination of&#160;the cochlea has been used to evoke responses in the auditory nerve10. Nevertheless it requires higher energies than electrical stimulation10,11 and uncertainty remains as to the underlying mechanism12. Here we describe a method based on optogenetics to stimulate SGNs with low intensity blue light, using transgenic mice with neuronal expression of channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2)13 or virus-mediated expression of the ChR2-variant CatCh14. We used micro-light emitting diodes (&#181;LEDs) and fiber-coupled lasers to stimulate ChR2-expressing SGNs through a small artificial opening (cochleostomy) or the round window. We assayed the responses by scalp recordings of light-evoked potentials (optogenetic auditory brainstem response: oABR) or by microelectrode recordings from the auditory pathway and compared them with acoustic and electrical stimulation.

Cochlear implants (CIs) enable hearing by direct electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve. However, poor frequency and intensity resolution limits the quality of hearing with CIs. Here we describe optogenetic stimulation of the auditory nerve in mice as an alternative strategy for auditory research and developing future CIs.

聴覚神経の光遺伝学的刺激

Direct electrical stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) by cochlear implants (CIs) enables open speech comprehension in the majority of implanted ...

Touchscreen Sustained Attention Task (SAT) for Rats

Sustained attention is the ability to monitor intermittent and unpredictable events over a prolonged period of time. This attentional process subserves other aspects of cognition and is disrupted in certain neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric, and neurodegenerative disorders. Thus, it is clinically important to identify mechanisms that impair and improve sustained attention. Such mechanisms are often first discovered using rodent models. Therefore, several behavior procedures for testing aspects of sustained attention have been developed for rodents. One, first described by McGaughy and Sarter (1995), called the sustained attention task (SAT), trains rats to distinguish between signal (i.e., brief light presentation) and non-signal trials. The signals are short and thus require careful attention to be perceived. Attentional demands can be increased further by introducing a distractor (e.g., flashing houselight). We have modified this task for touchscreen operant chambers, which are configured with a touchscreen on one wall that can present stimuli and record responses. Here we detail our protocol for SAT in touchscreen chambers. Additionally, we present standard measures of performance in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Comparable performance on this task in both sexes highlights its use for attention studies, especially as more researchers are including female rodents in their experimental design. Moreover, the easy implementation of SAT for the increasingly popular touchscreen chambers increases its utility.

Touchscreen Sustained Attention Task SAT for Rats

Sustained attention, or continuously monitoring situations for intermittent and unpredictable events, is a critical aspect of cognition. Here we detail how to test sustained attention in rats using touchscreen operant chambers. We demonstrate comparable performance in male and female rats, making this task useful for studying attention in both sexes.

タッチ スクリーンの持続的注意課題 (土) ラット

Sustained attention is the ability to monitor intermittent and unpredictable events over a prolonged period of time. This attentional process subserves ...

Simultaneous Recordings of Cortical Local Field Potentials, Electrocardiogram, Electromyogram, and Breathing Rhythm from a Freely Moving Rat

Monitoring the physiological dynamics of the brain and peripheral tissues is necessary for addressing a number of questions about how the brain controls body functions and internal organ rhythms when animals are exposed to emotional challenges and changes in their living environments. In general experiments, signals from different organs, such as the brain and the heart, are recorded by independent recording systems that require multiple recording devices and different procedures for processing the data files. This study describes a new method that can simultaneously monitor electrical biosignals, including tens of local field potentials in multiple brain regions, electrocardiograms that represent the cardiac rhythm, electromyograms that represent awake/sleep-related muscle contraction, and breathing signals, in a freely moving rat. The recording configuration of this method is based on a conventional micro-drive array for cortical local field potential recordings in which tens of electrodes are accommodated, and the signals obtained from these electrodes are integrated into a single electrical board mounted on the animal's head. Here, this recording system was improved so that signals from the peripheral organs are also transferred to an electrical interface board. In a single surgery, electrodes are first separately implanted into the appropriate body parts and the target brain areas. The open ends of all of these electrodes are then soldered to individual channels of the electrical board above the animal's head so that all of the signals can be integrated into the single electrical board. Connecting this board to a recording device allows for the collection of all of the signals into a single device, which reduces experimental costs and simplifies data processing, because all data can be handled in the same data file. This technique will aid the understanding of the neurophysiological correlates of the associations between central and peripheral organs.

This study introduces a method for the simultaneous recording of local field potentials in the brain, electrocardiograms, electromyograms, and breathing signals of a freely moving rat. This technique, which reduces experimental costs and simplifies data analysis, will contribute to the understanding of the interactions between the brain and peripheral organs.

皮質局所電界電位、心電図、筋電図、呼吸リズム自由行動ラットからの同時録音

Monitoring the physiological dynamics of the brain and peripheral tissues is necessary for addressing a number of questions about how the brain controls ...

Rat Model of Widespread Cerebral Cortical Demyelination Induced by an Intracerebral Injection of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system (CNS) and progressively leads to physical disability and death, caused by white matter lesions in the spinal cord and cerebellum, as well as by demyelination in grey matter. Whilst conventional models of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis are suitable for the investigation of the cell-mediated inflammation in the spinal and cerebellar white matter, they fail to address grey matter pathologies. Here, we present the experimental protocol for a novel rat model of cortical demyelination allowing the investigation of the pathological and molecular mechanisms leading to cortical lesions. The demyelination is induced by an immunization with low-dose myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) in an incomplete Freund&#39;s adjuvant followed by a catheter-mediated intracerebral delivery of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The catheter, moreover, enables multiple rounds of demyelination without causing injection-induced trauma, as well as the intracerebral delivery of potential therapeutic drugs undergoing a preclinical investigation. The method is also ethically favorable as animal pain and distress or disability are controlled and relatively minimal. The expected timeframe for the implementation of the entire protocol is around 8 - 10 weeks.

The protocol presented here allows the reproduction of a widespread grey matter demyelination of both cortical hemispheres in adult male Dark Agouti rats. The method comprises of intracerebral implantation of a catheter, subclinical immunization against myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, and intracerebral injection of a pro-inflammatory cytokine mixture through the implanted catheter.

炎症性サイトカインの脳内注射による広範囲にわたる大脳皮質脱髄のラットモデル

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system (CNS) and progressively leads to physical disability and ...

Statistical Modelling of Cortical Connectivity Using Non-invasive Electroencephalograms

Non-invasive electrophysiological recordings are useful for the evaluation of nervous system function. These techniques are inexpensive, fast, replicable, and less resource-intensive than imaging. Further, the functional data produced have excellent temporal resolution, which is not achievable with structural imaging.
Current applications of electroencephalograms (EEG) are limited by data processing methods. Standard analysis techniques using raw time series data at individual channels are very limited methods of interrogating nervous system activity. More detailed information about cortical function can be achieved by examining relationships between channels and deriving statistical models of how areas are interacting, allowing visualization of connectivity between networks.
This manuscript describes a method for deriving statistical models of cortical network activity by recording EEG in a standard manner, then examining the interelectrode coherence measures to assess relationships between the recorded areas. Higher order interactions can be further examined by assessing the covariance between the coherence pairs, producing high-dimensional &#34;maps&#34; of network interactions. These data constructs can be examined to assess cortical network function and its relationship to pathology in ways not achievable with traditional techniques.
This approach offers greater sensitivity to network level interactions than is achievable with raw time series analysis. It is, however, limited by the complexity of drawing specific mechanistic conclusions about the underlying neural populations and the high volumes of data generated, requiring more advanced statistical techniques for evaluation, including dimensionality reduction and classifier-based approaches.

Standard EEG analysis techniques offer limited insight into nervous system function. Deriving statistical models of cortical connectivity offers far greater ability to investigate underlying network dynamics. Improved functional assessment opens new possibilities for diagnosis, prognostication, and outcome prediction in nervous system diseases.

非侵襲的脳波を用いた皮質接続の統計的モデリング

Non-invasive electrophysiological recordings are useful for the evaluation of nervous system function. These techniques are inexpensive, fast, replicable, ...