This work was supported by the Office of Research and Development, RR&amp;D Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, NIH COBRE 1P20RR024484, NIH K24 AR02128 and Department of Defense W81XWH-10-1-0643.

1. Biaxial Loading Bioreactor Design
<ol>
 <li>The bioreactor employs two stages manufactured by Thor-labs (Newton, MA) for precision-guided laser applications for applying uniaxial or biaxial mechanical strain to engineered tissues, with great precision of loading dose (amplitude and frequency) and application to a wide variety of tissue culture conditions from single to 24 well plates (Figure 1).</li>
 <li>Bi-axial loading is accomplished by two TravelMax stages (LNR50SE). These stages are mounted or...

<ol>
	<li>Drachman, D. B., Sokoloff, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+movement+in+embryonic+joint+development.">The role of movement in embryonic joint development.</a> Devl. Biol. 14, 401-420 (1966).</li><li>Buschmann, M. D., Gluzband, Y. A., Grodzinsky, A. J., Hunziker, E. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+compression+modulates+matrix+biosynthesis+in+chondrocyte/agarose+culture.">Mechanical compression modulates matrix biosynthesis in chondrocyte/agarose culture.</a> J. Cell Sci. 108, 1497-1508 (1995).</li><li>Vunjak-Novakovic, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioreactor+Cultivation+Conditions+Modulate+the+Composition+and+Mechanical+Properties+of+Tissue-Engineered+Cartilage.">Bioreactor Cultivation Conditions Modulate the Composition and Mechanical Properties of Tissue-Engineered Cartilage.</a> Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 17, 130-138 (1999).</li><li>Gooch, K. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+Mixing+Intensity+on+Tissue-Engineered+Cartilage.">Effects of Mixing Intensity on Tissue-Engineered Cartilage.</a> Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 72, 402-407 (2001).</li><li>Carver, S. E., Heath, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increasing+extracellular+matrix+production+in+regenerating+cartilage+with+intermittent+physiological+pressure.">Increasing extracellular matrix production in regenerating cartilage with intermittent physiological pressure.</a> Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 62, 166-174 (1999).</li><li>Frank, E. H., Jin, M., Loening, A. M., Levenston, M. E., Grodzinsky, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+versatile+shear+and+compression+apparatus+for+mechanical+stimulation+of+tissue+culture+explants.">A versatile shear and compression apparatus for mechanical stimulation of tissue culture explants.</a> J. Biomech. 33, 1523-1527 (2000).</li><li>Wagner, D. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrostatic+pressure+enhances+chondrogenic+differentiation+of+human+bone+marrow+stromal+cells+in+osteochondrogenic+medium.">Hydrostatic pressure enhances chondrogenic differentiation of human bone marrow stromal cells in osteochondrogenic medium.</a> Ann. Biomed. Eng. 36, 813-820 (2008).</li><li>Butler, D. L., Goldstein, S. A., Guilak, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+Tissue+Engineering:+The+Role+of+Biomechanics.">Functional Tissue Engineering: The Role of Biomechanics.</a> J. Biomech. Eng. 122, 570-575 (2000).</li><li>Guilak, F., Butler, D. L., Goldstein, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+Tissue+Engineering.+The+role+of+biomechanics+in+articular+cartilage+repair.">Functional Tissue Engineering. The role of biomechanics in articular cartilage repair.</a> Clin. Orthop. 391S, S295-S305 (2001).</li><li>Mauck, R. L., Byers, B. A., Yuan, X., Tuan, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+cartilaginous+ECM+gene+transcription+by+chondrocytes+and+MSCs+in+3D+culture+in+response+to+dynamic+loading.">Regulation of cartilaginous ECM gene transcription by chondrocytes and MSCs in 3D culture in response to dynamic loading.</a> Biomech. Model Mechanobiol. 6, 113-125 (2007).</li><li>Rubin, C., Xu, G., Judex, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+anabolic+activity+of+bone+tissue,+suppressed+by+disuse,+is+normalized+by+brief+exposure+to+extremely+low-magnitude+mechanical+stimuli.">The anabolic activity of bone tissue, suppressed by disuse, is normalized by brief exposure to extremely low-magnitude mechanical stimuli.</a> FASEB J. 15, 2225-2229 (2001).</li><li>Wimmer, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tribology+approach+to+the+engineering+and+study+of+articular+cartilage.">Tribology approach to the engineering and study of articular cartilage.</a> Tissue Eng. 10, 1436-1445 (2004).</li><li>Miyata, S., Tateishi, T., Ushida, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+cartilaginous+matrix+accumulation+on+viscoelastic+response+of+chondrocyte/agarose+constructs+under+dynamic+compressive+and+shear+loading.">Influence of cartilaginous matrix accumulation on viscoelastic response of chondrocyte/agarose constructs under dynamic compressive and shear loading.</a> J. Biomech. Eng. 130, 051016 (2008).</li><li>Heiner, A. D., Martin, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cartilage+responses+to+a+novel+triaxial+mechanostimulatory+culture+system.">Cartilage responses to a novel triaxial mechanostimulatory culture system.</a> J. Biomech. 37, 689-695 (2004).</li><li>Waldman, S. D., Couto, D. C., Grynpas, M. D., Pilliar, R. M., Kandel, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-axial+mechanical+stimulation+of+tissue+engineered+cartilage:+review.">Multi-axial mechanical stimulation of tissue engineered cartilage: review.</a> Eur. Cell Mater. 13, 66-73 (2007).</li><li>Wartella, K. A., Wayne, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioreactor+for+biaxial+mechanical+stimulation+to+tissue+engineered+constructs.">Bioreactor for biaxial mechanical stimulation to tissue engineered constructs.</a> J. Biomech. Eng. 131, 044501 (2009).</li><li>Bian, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+mechanical+loading+enhances+functional+properties+of+tissue-engineered+cartilage+using+mature+canine+chondrocytes.">Dynamic mechanical loading enhances functional properties of tissue-engineered cartilage using mature canine chondrocytes.</a> Tissue Eng. Part A. 16, 1781-1790 (2010).</li><li>Bilgen, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+of+a+Biaxial+Loading+Device+for+Cartilage+Tissue+Engineering.">Design of a Biaxial Loading Device for Cartilage Tissue Engineering.</a> , 1815 (2011).</li><li>Mauck, R. L., Wang, C. C., Oswald, E. S., Ateshian, G. A., Hung, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+cell+seeding+density+and+nutrient+supply+for+articular+cartilage+tissue+engineering+with+deformational+loading.">The role of cell seeding density and nutrient supply for articular cartilage tissue engineering with deformational loading.</a> Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 11, 879-890 (2003).</li><li>Mauck, R. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+tissue+engineering+of+articular+cartilage+through+dynamic+loading+of+chondrocyte-seeded+agarose+gels.">Functional tissue engineering of articular cartilage through dynamic loading of chondrocyte-seeded agarose gels.</a> J. Biomech. Eng. 122, 252-260 (2000).</li><li>Demarteau, O., Jakob, M., Schafer, D., Heberer, M., Martin, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+and+validation+of+a+bioreactor+for+physical+stimulation+of+engineered+cartilage.">Development and validation of a bioreactor for physical stimulation of engineered cartilage.</a> Biorheology. 40, 331-336 (2003).</li><li>Grad, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surface+motion+upregulates+superficial+zone+protein+and+hyaluronan+production+in+chondrocyte-seeded+three-dimensional+scaffolds.">Surface motion upregulates superficial zone protein and hyaluronan production in chondrocyte-seeded three-dimensional scaffolds.</a> Tissue Eng. 11, 249-256 (2005).</li><li>Schatti, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+combination+of+shear+and+dynamic+compression+leads+to+mechanically+induced+chondrogenesis+of+human+mesenchymal+stem+cells.">A combination of shear and dynamic compression leads to mechanically induced chondrogenesis of human mesenchymal stem cells.</a> Eur. Cell Mater. 22, 214-225 (2011).</li></ol>

We have designed a loading device that is capable of applying uniaxial or biaxial mechanical strain to tissue engineered constructs fabricated for transplantation. The device can be used as a bioreactor for in vitro cultivation of engineered biocomposites or as a testing device to describe the mechanical characteristics of the native tissue or after other treatments prior to. The device subjects engineered tissue constructs to biaxial mechanical loading with great precision of loading dose (amplitude and ...

We have designed a loading bioreactor that is capable of applying uniaxial or biaxial mechanical strain to a tissue engineered biocomposites fabricated for transplantation. This device is primarily designed as a bioreactor for engineered replacements for articular cartilage; it could also be used for other load-bearing tissues in the human body. Our motivation in this bioreactor design stems from Drachman and Sokoloff 1, who made the seminal observation of abnormal formation of articular cartilage in paralyzed chick embryos due to absence of motion. Similarly, physical exercise is essential for development of normal muscle and bone. In keeping with this concept, many research groups have investigated how different modes of physical stimuli during in vitro cultivation modulates the biochemical and mechanical properties of cell-biomaterial biocomposites and tissue explants 2-7. The concept of functional tissue engineering involves the in vitro use of mechanical stimuli to enhance the functional properties of tissues, i.e. the mechanical properties that enable the tissue to withstand the expected in vivo stress and strain 8,9. Numerous studies report the use mechanical loading in terms of shear and compression to stimulate engineered cartilage constructs for articular joints. Mauck et al. 10 suggest that mechanical loading alone can induce chondrogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells even in the absence of growth factors that are considered vital. Application of intermittent mechanical loading such as compression or shear during tissue cultivation has been shown to modulate cartilage and bone formation, however the optimum dosimetry of loading differs with cell and tissue properties 11.
	The most important function of articular cartilage is the ability to withstand compressive and shear forces within the joint, therefore it has to have high compressive and shear moduli. The lack of functional mechanical strength and physiological ultrastructure in engineered cartilage has resulted in the breakdown on neo-cartilage in vivo and the failure of cartilage replacement strategies in joints. Although compression and shear have been commonly demonstrated to modulate and improve mechanical strength of articular cartilage biocomposites, a combination approach is rare 6,12-15. Wartella and Wayne 16 designed a bioreactor that applied tension and compression to produce meniscal cartilage replacements. Waldman et al. 15 designed a device to apply compression and shear to chondrocytes cultured in a porous calcium polyphosphate substrate. Bian et al. 17 demonstrated mechanical properties matching native cartilage with the in vitro cultivation of adult canine chondrocytes in gels and application of biaxial mechanical loading (compressive deformational loading and sliding contact loading). 
	The biaxial mechanical loading bioreactor was originally designed by Danielle Chu in our laboratory with the overall goal to induce morphological adaptations in tissue engineered cartilage constructs resulting in higher compressive and shear moduli than currently available 18. We believe this research will significantly increase our broader understanding of how mechanotransduction can be modulated to engineer clinically relevant tissues.

<table border="1">
		<tbody>
		 <tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>REAGENTS</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>DMEM, High glucose, pyruvate</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>11995</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Agarose Type II</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>CAS 39346-81-1 </td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Penicillin Streptomycin Glutamine 100X</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>10378-016</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>ITS+ Premix</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>354352</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Pen Strep Glutamine</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>10378-016</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>041-95780</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Ascorbic Acid</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A-2218</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Nonessential Amino Acid Solution 100x</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M-7145</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>L-proline</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P-5607</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Dexamethasone</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D-2915</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Recombinant Human Transforming Growth Factor &beta;1</td>
			<td>R&amp;D Systems</td>
			<td>240-B-010</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>EQUIPMENT</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Model 31 Load Cell (1000 g)</td>
			<td>Honeywell</td>
			<td>AL311</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Single Channel Display</td>
			<td>Honeywell</td>
			<td>SC500</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>50 mm Linear Encoded Travelmax Stage with Stepper Actuator</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>LNR50SE/M</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Two Channel Stepper Motor Controller</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>BSC102</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>50 mm Trapezoidal Stepper Motor Drive (2)</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>DRV014</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Adjustable Kinematic Locator (4)</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>KL02</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Precision Right Angle Plate</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>AP90/M</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Vertical Mounting Bracket</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>LNR50P2/M</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Solid Aluminum Breadboard</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>MB3030/M</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Gel Casting System with 1.5 mm and 0.75 mm spacer plates </td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>#1653312 and #1653310 </td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Disposable Biopsy Punch, 5 mm</td>
			<td>Miltex, Inc.</td>
			<td>33-35</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>16 mm hollow punch</td>
			<td>Neiko Tools</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Non-Tissue Culture Treated Plates, 24 Well, Flat Bottom</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>351147</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Ultra-Moisture-Resistant Polysulfone sheet for loading platens</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>86735k19</td>
			<td>Custom-machined</td>
		 </tr>
		</tbody>
 </table>

design of a biaxial mechanical loading bioreactor for tissue engineering

We designed a loading device that is capable of applying uniaxial or biaxial mechanical strain to a tissue engineered biocomposites fabricated for transplantation. While the device primarily functions as a bioreactor that mimics the native mechanical strains, it is also outfitted with a load cell for providing force feedback or mechanical testing of the constructs. The device subjects engineered cartilage constructs to biaxial mechanical loading with great precision of loading dose (amplitude and frequency) and is compact enough to fit inside a standard tissue culture incubator. It loads samples directly in a tissue culture plate, and multiple plate sizes are compatible with the system. The device has been designed using components manufactured for precision-guided laser applications. Bi-axial loading is accomplished by two orthogonal stages. The stages have a 50 mm travel range and are driven independently by stepper motor actuators, controlled by a closed-loop stepper motor driver that features micro-stepping capabilities, enabling step sizes of less than 50 nm. A polysulfone loading platen is coupled to the bi-axial moving platform. Movements of the stages are controlled by Thor-labs Advanced Positioning Technology (APT) software. The stepper motor driver is used with the software to adjust load parameters of frequency and amplitude of both shear and compression independently and simultaneously. Positional feedback is provided by linear optical encoders that have a bidirectional repeatability of 0.1 &mu;m and a resolution of 20 nm, translating to a positional accuracy of less than 3 &mu;m over the full 50 mm of travel. These encoders provide the necessary position feedback to the drive electronics to ensure true nanopositioning capabilities. In order to provide the force feedback to detect contact and evaluate loading responses, a precision miniature load cell is positioned between the loading platen and the moving platform. The load cell has high accuracies of 0.15% to 0.25% full scale.

The device was tested by using agarose gels seeded with 20 million cells/ml chondrocytes and cultivated in the presence of uniaxial (compression) or biaxial (compression and shear) mechanical loading. Primary porcine chondrocytes were isolated from the articular cartilage of 2-4 month old pigs. 5 mm diameter and 1.5 mm thick samples were cultured in 2 ml of defined chondrogenic culture medium (High glucose DMEM, 1% ITS+ Premix, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 &mu;g/ml streptomycin, 2 mM L-glutamine, 2.5 &mu;g/ml amphotericin B,...

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Design of a Biaxial Mechanical Loading Bioreactor for Tissue Engineering

We designed a novel mechanical loading bioreactor that can apply uniaxial or biaxial mechanical strain to a cartilage biocomposite prior to transplantation into an articular cartilage defect.

We  designed a loading device that is capable of applying uniaxial or biaxial  mechanical strain to a tissue engineered biocomposites fabricated for  ...

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Analysis and Design of Beams for Bending

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14.2K ビュー.  The Warren Alpert Brown Medical School of Brown University and the Rhode Island Hospital. 私たちは、関節軟骨欠損部に移植前に軟骨バイオ複合に一軸又は二軸の機械的ひずみを適用できる新規な機械的負荷バイオリアクターを設計しました。