This work was in part supported by grants from the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche, PIRIbio program Dynabiofilm and from CNRS Interdisciplinary Risk program. We thank Philippe Thomen for his critical reading of the manuscript and Christophe Beloin for providing the E. coli strain used in this work.

1. Bacteria Culture and Suspension Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Pick a freshly grown colony from a Lysogeny Broth (LB) agar plate, inoculate it in 5 ml liquid LB medium containing 100 &#181;g/ml ampicillin and 7.5 &#181;g/ml tetracycline and incubate it for 5 to 6 hr at 37 &#176;C on a shaking platform.</li>
	<li>Then, add 100 &#181;l of the bacterial culture in 5 ml minimum medium (M63B1) supplemented with 0.4% glucose and the same antibiotic concentrations. Incubate this freshly diluted culture ov...

<ol>
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B., Stoodley, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Viscoelastic+properties+of+a+mixed+culture+biofilm+from+rheometer+creep+analysis.">Viscoelastic properties of a mixed culture biofilm from rheometer creep analysis.</a> Biofouling. 19, 279-285 (2003).</li><li>Lau, P. C., Dutcher, J. R., Beveridge, T. J., Lam, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Absolute+quantitation+of+bacterial+biofilm+adhesion+and+viscoelasticity+by+microbead+force+spectroscopy.">Absolute quantitation of bacterial biofilm adhesion and viscoelasticity by microbead force spectroscopy.</a> Biophysical journal. 96, 2935-2948 (2009).</li><li>Poppele, E. H., Hozalski, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Micro-cantilever+method+for+measuring+the+tensile+strength+of+biofilms+and+microbial+flocs.">Micro-cantilever method for measuring the tensile strength of biofilms and microbial flocs.</a> Journal of microbiological methods. 55, 607-615 (2003).</li><li>Aggarwal, S., Poppele, E. H., Hozalski, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+and+testing+of+a+novel+microcantilever+technique+for+measuring+the+cohesive+strength+of+intact+biofilms.">Development and testing of a novel microcantilever technique for measuring the cohesive strength of intact biofilms.</a> Biotechnology and bioengineering. 105, 924-934 (2010).</li><li>Gu&#233;lon, T., Mathias, J. -. 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This magnetic particle seeding and pulling experiment enabled in situ 3D mapping of the viscoelastic parameters of a growing biofilm in its original state. This approach revealed the mechanical heterogeneity of the E. coli biofilm grown here and gave clues to point out the biofilm components supporting the biofilm physical properties, strongly suggesting a fundamental implication of the extracellular matrix and more precisely its degree of cross-linking.
The recognition of me...

Bacterial biofilms are communities of bacteria associated with biological or artificial surfaces1-3. They form by an adhesion-growth mechanism coupled with the production of polysaccharide-rich extracellular matrix that protects and stabilizes the edifice4,5. These biofilms are not simply passive assemblages of cells stuck to surfaces, but organized and dynamic complex biological systems. When bacteria switch from planktonic to biofilm lifestyle, changes in gene expression and cell physiology are observed as well as increased resistance to antimicrobials and host immune defenses being at the origin of many persistent and chronic infections6. However, the controlled development of these living structures also offer opportunities for industrial and environmental applications, such as bioremediation of hazardous waste sites, bio-filtration of industrial water or formation of bio-barriers to protect soil and groundwater from contamination.
While molecular features specific to biofilm way of life are increasingly described, the mechanisms driving the community development and persistence remain unclear. Using the recent advances on microscale measurements using scanning electrochemical or fluorescence microscopy, these living organizations have been shown to exhibit considerable structural, chemical and biological heterogeneity7. Yet, until now, biofilm mechanics have been mainly examined macroscopically. For instance, observation of biofilm streamers deformation due to variations in fluid flow rates8,9, &#160;uniaxial compression of biofilm pieces lift from agar medium or grown on cover slides10,11, shear of biofilm collected from the environment and then transferred to a parallel plate rheometer12,13, atomic force spectroscopy using a glass bead and coated with a bacterial biofilm attached to an AFM cantilever14 or a dedicated microcantilever method for measuring the tensile strength of detached biofilm fragments15,16 have been implemented during the ten last years, providing useful information on the viscoelastic nature of the material17. However, it seems likely that information on in situ biofilm mechanical properties is lost when the material is removed from its native environment, which was often the case in these approaches. Moreover, the treatment of the biofilm as a homogeneous material misses the information on the possible heterogeneity of the physical properties within the community. Therefore, the exact implications of the structure mechanics in the biofilm formation and biological traits such as gene expression patterning or chemical gradients can hardly be recognized. To progress towards a microscale description of the biofilm physical properties, new dedicated tools are required.
This paper details an original approach conceived to achieve measurement of local mechanical parameters in situ, without disturbing the biofilm and enabling drawing of the spatial distribution of the microscale material properties and then the mechanical heterogeneity. The principle of the experiment rests on the doping of a growing biofilm with magnetic microparticles followed by their remote loading using magnetic tweezers in the mature biofilm. Particle displacement under controlled magnetic force application imaged under the microscope enables local viscoelastic parameter derivation, each particle reporting its own local environment. From these data, the 3D mechanical profile of the biofilm can be drawn, revealing spatial and environmental condition dependences. The whole experiment will be shown here on an E. coli biofilm made by a genetically engineered strain carrying a derepressed F-like plasmid. The results detailed in a recent paper18 provide a unique vision of the interior of intact biofilm mechanics.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1258">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="5" height="21" style="height:21px;width:1257px;">Table 1: Reagents and cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="20" rowspan="2" style="height:22px;width:216px;">Magnetic particles</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:323px;">Life technologies</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:224px;">14307D</td>
			<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="width:496px;">Micrometric magnetic particle, 2.8 &#181;m diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="2">
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:216px;">Ampicillin (Antibiotic)</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">A9518</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Tetracycline (Antibiotic)</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">87128</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Bacterial strain MG1655gfpF</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">UGB, Institut Pasteur, France</td>
			<td style="width:224px;"></td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">produces F pili at its surface, resistant to Ampicilllin and tetracycline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="5" height="21" style="height:21px;width:1257px;">Table 2:&#160; Capillaries and tubing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:23px;width:216px;">Filters for pediatric perfusion</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Prodimed-Plastimed</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">6932002</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:216px;">Hollow Square Capillaries</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Composite Metal Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">8280-100</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">Manufactured in Borosilicate glass. Square 0.8mm x0.8mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Tubing silicone peroxyde</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">VWR international</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">228-0512</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">Diameter 1mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Tubing silicone peroxyde</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">VWR international</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">228-0700</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">Diameter 3mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Table 3: Biofilm growth</td>
			<td style="width:323px;"></td>
			<td style="width:224px;"></td>
			<td style="width:495px;"></td>
			<td style="width:1px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Lysogeny Broth (LB) solution</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Amresco-VWR</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">J106-10PK</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">standard medium used to grow bacteria</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">M63B1 solution</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Home-made</td>
			<td style="width:224px;"></td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">Standard minimum&#160; medium used to grow bacteria</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Glucose</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">G8270</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">Used to make M63B1 medium with 0.4% glucose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="5" height="21" style="height:21px;width:1257px;">Table 4: Electronics</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Camera EMCCD&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Hamamatsu</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">C9100-02</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:216px;">Heater controller</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">World precision instruments</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">300354</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Function generator</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Agilent technologies</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">33210A</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Power amplifier</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Home-made</td>
			<td style="width:224px;"></td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">It gives a current signal with amplitudes up to 4 A.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Syringe pumps</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Kd Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">KDS-220</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Shutter</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Vincent Associates</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">Uniblitz T132</td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="125">
			<td height="125" style="height:125px;width:216px;">Magnetic tweezers</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Home-made</td>
			<td style="width:224px;"></td>
			<td colspan="2" style="width:496px;">Two electromagnetic poles, each made of a copper coil with 2,120 turns of 0.56 mm in diameter copper wire and soft magnetic alloy cores (Supra50-Arcelor Mittal, France) square shaped according to the blueprint shown in Fig. 10. The two cores are mounted north pole facing south pole, in order to generate a magnetic force in one direction along the length of the capillary. See coil wiring details in Figure 11.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="5" height="21" style="height:21px;width:1257px;">Table 5: Optics</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Inverted microscope&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Nikon</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">TE-300</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">S Fluor x40 Objective (NA 0.9, WD0.3)</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td style="width:224px;"></td>
			<td>This a long working distance ojective enabling observation of the biofilm in the depth</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;width:216px;">Epifluorescence filters: 1) for green fluorescence: Exc 480/20 nm; DM 495; Em 510/20&#160; 2) for Red fluorescence: Exc 540/25 nm; DM 565; Em 605/55</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Chroma</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">1)#49020 2)#31002</td>
			<td>Particle displacement upon force application is recorded using the red fluoresecnce filter block.</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="5" height="21" style="height:21px;width:1257px;">Table 6: Image analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">ImageJ</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">NIH - particle tracker plugin</td>
			<td style="width:224px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

remote magnetic actuation of micrometric probes for in situ 3d mapping of bacterial biofilm physical properties

Bacterial adhesion and growth on interfaces lead to the formation of three-dimensional heterogeneous structures so-called biofilms. The cells dwelling in these structures are held together by physical interactions mediated by a network of extracellular polymeric substances. Bacterial biofilms impact many human activities and the understanding of their properties is crucial for a better control of their development &#8212; maintenance or eradication &#8212; depending on their adverse or beneficial outcome. This paper describes a novel methodology aiming to measure in situ the local physical properties of the biofilm that had been, until now, examined only from a macroscopic and homogeneous material perspective. The experiment described here&#160;involves introducing magnetic particles into a growing biofilm to seed local probes that can be remotely actuated without disturbing the structural properties of the biofilm. Dedicated magnetic tweezers were developed to exert a defined force on each particle embedded in the biofilm. The setup is mounted on the stage of a microscope to enable the&#160;recording of time-lapse images of the particle-pulling period. The particle trajectories are then extracted from the pulling sequence and the local viscoelastic parameters are derived from each particle displacement curve, thereby providing the 3D-spatial distribution of the parameters. Gaining insights into the biofilm mechanical profile is essential from an engineer&#39;s point of view for biofilm control purposes but also from a fundamental perspective to clarify the relationship between the architectural properties and the specific biology of these structures.

A typical analysis will provide the spatial distribution of the viscoelastic parameters at the micron scale on a living biofilm without disturbing its original arrangement. Typical results are shown in Figure 7 where the values of J0 &#8212; the elastic compliance &#8212; are given as a function of the z-axis along the depth and of the y-axis along a lateral dimension of the biofilm. Each point corresponds to a bead which creep curve analysis has provided a J0 value. The data reveal...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Remote Magnetic Actuation of Micrometric Probes for in situ 3D Mapping of Bacterial Biofilm Physical Properties at JoVE.com

Remote Magnetic Actuation of Micrometric Probes for in situ 3D Mapping of Bacterial Biofilm Physical Properties

This paper shows an original methodology based on the remote actuation of magnetic particles seeded in a bacterial biofilm and the development of dedicated magnetic tweezers to measure in situ the local mechanical properties of the complex living material built by micro-organisms at interfaces.

Remote Magnetic Actuation of Micrometric Probes for in situ 3D Mapping of Bacterial Biofilm Physical Properties

Bacterial adhesion and growth on interfaces lead to the formation of three-dimensional heterogeneous structures so-called biofilms. The cells dwelling in ...

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9.1K ビュー.  Sorbonne Universités, UPMC. 本論文では、細菌バイオフィルムと、その場で界面で微生物によって構築された複雑な生活材料の局所的な機械的特性を測定するための専用の磁気ピンセットの開発に播種磁性粒子の遠隔操作に基づいて、元の方法論を示しています。 