サポートは、医学のピッツバーグ大学大学院の薬理学およびケミカルバイオロジー部門からスタートアップ資金によって提供された。ニコラス·グラフ：ビデオの提出に貢献ヤコブラボメンバーの謝辞。

以下に説明されているすべてのプロトコルは、動物実験委員会と医学のピッツバーグ大学大学院のIRB制度審査委員会に従う。 1。組織培養フード内の海馬ニューロン培養の調製注意：プロトコル1全体で使用無菌技術および試薬を。 <ol><li>神経細胞培養のための基質としてポリ-D-リジン（0.1 mg / mlの中のH 2 O）、コーティングされたガラス製カバースリップを準備します。 <ol><li>各3.5センチメートル組織培養皿の内側4-5ラウンドガラス製カバースリップを配置。 </li><li>各12ミリメートルのカバーガラス上にスポット70μlのポリ-D-リジン。注：ライブイメージングのために、ガラスは、（埋め込まれた14ミリメートルのガラス製カバースリップ上に200μlのポリ-D-リジンを発見）3.5 cmの組織培養皿を用いることができる有底。 </li><li>組織培養フードのO / Nで惣菜を残すポリ-D-リジンの蒸発を最小限に抑え、組織培養フードに無菌表面を保ち、窓サッシを閉鎖し、目をオフにするにはEブロワーのO / N注意：UVランプは、O / Nインキュベーション中に使用されていません。 </li><li>翌朝、食器は、H 2 Oの2ミリリットルで3回洗浄</li><li>最後のH 2 Oの洗浄を除去した後、各3.5センチメートル皿にメディアの2ミリリットルを追加し、ステップ1.4でニューロンをめっきする準備が整うまでインキュベーター内で料理をしておきます。 </li></ol></li><li>海馬ニューロンは、胎生18〜19（ゴズリン22から改変）（E18-19）のラットから調製される。 </li><li>マキシ構築DNAの1-4μgの培養の日に新鮮に解離した神経細胞をトランスフェクト。 注意：一般的にDNAの3μgの50％の生存率および200万ニューロンから始まる60％のトランスフェクション効率（ 例えばで、100万〜200万ニューロンにトランスフェクトされる。（（2×10 6ニューロンX 0.5）0.6）を提供します約百万ニューロン; 1をトランスフェクトされる60万々の潜在的な問題のトラブルシューティングを行うときに、構築物のDNAの異なる量のトランスフェクトすることができる。過剰発現は、構築物の局在と機能の適切な特性評価を行った。 </li><li>プレートの3.5cm皿当たり約20万のニューロンの最終的な密度で、ポリ-D-リジンコートしたカバーガラス上にトランスフェクションしたニューロンを。注意：ガラスボトムディッシュのために、14ミリメートルのガラス面積に4〜5万ニューロンをプレート。 </li><li>神経細胞は、in vitro（DIV）または所望の段階で 14〜17日まで、インキュベーター内で開発できるようにして、神経細胞培養の調製後のメディア4月24日時間を交換してください。 </li></ol> 2。エンドサイトーシスアッセイ 注意：α-ブンガロトキシンおよびツボクラリン廃棄や取り扱いに注意してください： <ol><li>すべてのペプチド神経毒の扱いは、バイオセーフティレベル2（BL-2）研究プロトコールのガイドラインの範囲内でお勧めします。すべての適切な個人保護具を着用しなければならない。凍結乾燥された毒素粉末は、製造業者の説明書に従って再構成されるべきである。毒素廃棄寿LDは支配機関の環境衛生および安全に関するガイドラインを遵守して処分される。 </li><li>貯蔵中に形成されている可能性のある潜在的なペプチド凝集体を除去するために、α-ブンガロトキシンのアリコートを使用前に短時間遠心分離されるべきであり、そして上清を実験に使用されるべきである。 </li><li> α-ブンガロトキシン（BGT）ストックは-20℃での滅菌H 2 O中の1 mg / mlの濃度に再懸濁し、10μlのアリコートで保存されている蛍光結合されたBGTストックを3μg/ mlの時に使用されている。ツボクラリンは、150μMの最終濃度で使用されている。 </li></ol><ol><li>上に薄いアルミニウムやステンレス板と低温室で16℃に設定し、ベンチトップヒーターブロック。可能な場合あるいは、ベンチトップ冷却/加熱装置は16℃を必要とする各工程のために使用することができる</li><li>単位はmM含有クール外Hepes緩衝生理食塩水（HBS：135のNaCl、4.7 KCl、10mMのHEPES、11グルコース、1.2のMgCl 2、および2.5CaCl 2を 、水浴中で16°CまでpH7.4）中。 </li><li> 16℃、5分間のクールでアルミ板への転送ニューロン料理を。 </li><li>メディアを取り出す（ ステップ2.8、エンドサイトーシスアッセイの時点インキュベーター内条件培地と予備を保持 ）し、2分間16℃で、HBS +のツボクラリン（150μm）で1ミリリットルと交換してください。 </li><li>ラベルされた廃棄物容器にHBS +ツボクラリンを削除し、アレクサ594 [3μg/ mlの]、15分間16℃でインキュベートする1​​ミリリットル16の℃のHBS +のツボクラリン（150μM）+α-ブンガロトキシンと交換します。 </li><li>取り外しHBS +ツボクラリン+α-ブンガロアレクサ594（洗浄は50％の漂白剤50ミリリットルを含む真空フラスコに吸引を介して収集することができます）廃棄物容器とラベルと料理は16℃、HBSの2ミリリットルで3回洗浄します。 </li><li>ガラスを用いた受容体エンドサイトーシスに続いてライブイメージング時系列実験3.5 10cm培養皿の底には、2.1〜2.6の手順を実行し、次に加熱ステージに皿を転送する（ペルチェ素子）顕微鏡、共焦点またはTIRF顕微鏡のセットアップを画像化を開始します。 </li><li> 2.9ステップに他のカバースリップを続け、20分間RT 4％パラホルムアルデヒド/ 4％スクロースの皿にT = 0の時点カバースリップを転送する。 </li><li>他の時点では、エアコンとHBSを交換する（ステップ2.4に予約）37℃のメディアを平衡化し、37℃（注）でエンドサイトーシスのためのインキュベーターに戻る：T = 15、30、および60の追加の時点を示唆した。 </li><li>の時点で必要に応じて、インキュベーターから料理を取るのRTのDPBS 2mlですばやく2回洗わない（カルシウム、マグネシウムをDPBSない）、その後20分間、4％パラホルムアルデヒド/ 4％スクロースで固定します。 </li><li> 20分固定後、コンテナを無駄にし、2ミリリットルのRT DPBSで二度皿を洗うために4％パラホルムアルデヒド/ 4％ショ糖を除去します。 </li><li>透磁率0.2％トリトンX-100を含有する免疫蛍光ブロック溶液（ブロック溶液= 5％ウマ血清、DPBS中の0.5％BSA）中で室温で10分間カバースリップをインキュベートするニューロンをIZE、細胞内受容体プールと/または関心のある他のタンパク質の標識の抗GFP免疫染色を可能にする。 </li><li>ブロック+0.2％トリトンX-100を取り外し、20〜30分のためのトリトンX-100なしで免疫蛍光ブロック溶液中でカバースリップをインキュベートする。 </li><li> 4℃でRTまたはO / Nで数時間ブロックにカバースリップの一次抗体インキュベーションを行う注：4°のCO / Nにおける原色とカバースリップのインキュベーションは日常の改良免疫蛍光結果を生成します。 </li><li>洗浄はDPBSで3回（各洗浄工程のための5分間）カバースリップ。 </li><li>室温で1時間ブロック溶液中の二次抗体を用いてカバースリップをインキュベートする。 </li><li>洗浄はDPBSで3回（各洗浄工程のための5分間）カバースリップ。 </li><li>マウントカバースリップ、個別に各カバースリップの処理：スライドガラス上にメディアをマウントする4μLにカバースリップを反転して、実験室組織とカバーガラスの背面から過剰な液体を除去。 </li><li>そしてSTスライドを30分間に覆わRTで乾燥させる顕微鏡法を実行する準備するまで4℃で鉱石。 </li><li>共焦点顕微鏡（実験条件にブラインド）を用いた実験の画像取得と分析。 60XオイルNA以下のレーザーで1.49浸対物レンズ：アルゴンガスは488nm、561ダイオード、640ダイオード。 <ol><li>同じ画像取得設定を使用して、神経細胞体及びフォーカスのいくつかの樹状突起を有する単一のZ部分画像を取​​得する。 </li><li>すべてのエンドサイトーデータの分析のために同じ閾値を用いて、ニューロンあたり3-4近位の樹状突起に沿って20μmのα-ブンガロトキシンAlexaの蛍光シグナル及びGFP免疫染色を定量する。 </li><li>いくつかの独立した神経細胞培養を用いた実験を繰り返して、各時点で10〜12ニューロンからのデータを分析。 </li></ol></li></ol>

<ol>
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著者らは、開示することは何もありません。

ここで説明するBBS基づいて、固定技術は、生細胞株、ニューロン、および他の一次細胞における受容体または他の原形質膜タンパク質の輸送を追跡するために使用することができる。この方法は、正常膜挿入およびリガンド依存性イオンチャネルの除去およびGPCRを研究による受容体アゴニストおよびモジュレーターの存在下にトラフィッキングの変化を評価するために使用されている。重要...

の蛍光体の局在とダイナミクスを研究するため、α-ブンガロトキシンを結合された使用は、ニコチン性アセチルコリン受容体13〜15、毒素の内因性標的の研究で開拓された。続いて、最小限のBGT結合ペプチド（BBS）の組み込みは、興奮性および阻害性リガンド依存性イオンチャネルおよびGタンパク質共役受容体2,10,16-21両方の輸送を研究するために使用されている。このBBSベースの技術は、表面ビオチン化法、細胞外エピトープに対する抗体を用いた生細胞の抗体標識、および（FRAP）を光退色後蛍光回復などの人身売買の研究に使用される他のアプローチには利点を提供します。細胞表面の間にビオチン化遊離アミンが共有結合し細胞活性に影響を与える可能性を秘めた、変更されます。抗体ベースの研究は、多くの場合、人身売買のイベントを変更することができ、表面抗原クラスタリングまたはキャッピングによって妨げられてきた。原因FRAP sの漂白工程へtudies、重要な関心事は、下にある細胞構造を損傷している。さらなる利点は、BBSが構築物はまた、ビオチン結合ロバにブンガロトキシン受容体の輸送生化学手法を用いることができるタグ付けすることである。この技術は、細胞株および初代細胞に容易に適用可能である。示されるように、ニコチン性アセチルコリン（nAChRの）受容体を発現する細胞で使用するためには、のnAChR拮抗ツボクラリンは、プロトコル全体で使用されている必要があります。ツボクラリンの非存在下でトランスフェクトしていない細胞に（エンドサイトーシスプロトコルのT = 0の時点に相当）の単純な表面BGT標識を行うと、内因性nAChRの証拠を提供する。 それは、目的のタンパク質が原形質膜に送達される細胞外の位置に存在するように、この技術を使用するための重要な考慮事項は、BBSの適切な挿入である。例えば、GABAARサブユニットのN-末端ドメインは、人身中に水疱ルーメン内に常駐fickingおよび細胞表面受容体およびエンドサイトーシスイベントによる細胞表面からの除去の評価の特異的標識を可能にする、原形質膜中の受容体の挿入後に細胞外になります。我々は以前GABAARサブユニットのこのドメインへのGFP、mycを、BBS又はエピトープの添加は、機能的にサイレントであることが示されている。標準コントロールは、それが適切に局在すること、タグ付きタンパク質はタグなし構築物に類似したレベルで発現されることを保証するために行われ、それが受容体の機能に影響を与えないべきである。トランスフェクトコンストラクトのこの特性は、トラブルシューティングの過剰発現の懸念を支援します。

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using an &#945;-bungarotoxin binding site tag to study gaba a receptor membrane localization and trafficking

これは、ますます明らかであるイオンチャネル型GABA A受容体（GABAAR）、展示高度に動的な輸送および細胞表面移動度1-7を含む神経伝達物質受容体、。受容体細胞表面局在化およびエンドサイトーシスを研究するために、ここに記載された技術は、α-ブンガロトキシン（BGT）結合部位（BBS）を含む構築物を発現する細胞と蛍光α-ブンガロトキシンの使用を兼ね備えています。 BBS（WRYYESSLEPYPD）は、高親和性8,9でBGTをバインドし、筋肉ニコチン性アセチルコリン受容体のαサブユニットに基づいています。掲示板サイトの取り込みは、以前に、GABA Aと代謝型GABABの追跡2,10受容体で説明したように、表面局在および受容体の挿入または外因性蛍光BGTの適用と除去の測定を可能にする。 BBS部位に加えて、我々は標準mで成熟GABAARサブユニットのアミノ酸4と5の間のpH感受性GFP（pHGFP 11）に挿入olecular分子生物学およびPCRクローニングストラテジー12（ 図1参照）。 BBSは、13個のアミノ酸のアラニン/プロリンリンカーにより分離、pH感受性GFPレポーターの3 &#39;である。固定したサンプルに基づいており、この文書に記載されて人身売買の研究のために、pHGFPが全体の記者がBGTの正規化は、全受容体集団に受容体集団をラベル付けできるように、GABAARサブユニットタンパク質レベルタグとして機能します。これはタグ付けされたGABAARサブユニットの高いまたは低いベースライン発現に起因する細胞BGT染色シグナルの変動にセルを最小限に抑えることができます。さらにpHGFPタグは、ライブまたは固定イメージング実験用の細胞を発現する構築物を容易に識別することができます。

BBSタグ付けされた構造のキャラクタリゼーションは、発現されたタンパク質は（特に複数のサブユニットからなる受容体に）適切に組み立てるかどうかを判断するなどの重要なコントロールが含まれ、細胞表面にトラフィックを適切局在する。抑制性シナプスは、阻害足場タンパク質ゲフィリンと共局在し、シナプス小胞（VIAAT / VGAT）にGABAおよびグリシンをロード水疱性抑制性アミノ酸ト?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using an Î±-Bungarotoxin Binding Site Tag to Study GABA A Receptor Membrane Localization and Trafficking at JoVE.com

Using an &amp;#945;-Bungarotoxin Binding Site Tag to Study GABA A Receptor Membrane Localization and Trafficking

ここでは、GABA海馬ニューロンにおける受容体表面局在およびエンドサイトーシスを測定するために、ブンガロトキシンをαに結合された蛍光Alexaの色素の使用を示す。 α-ブンガロトキシンに結合する細胞外の短いタグを有する構築物の使用によって、血漿膜タンパク質のエンドサイトーシス輸送の分析を達成することができる。

GABA A受容体の膜局在化および輸送を研究するために、α-ブンガロトキシン結合部位タグを使用して

It is increasingly evident that neurotransmitter receptors, including ionotropic GABA A receptors (GABAAR), exhibit highly dynamic trafficking and cell ...

using-an-bungarotoxin-binding-site-tag-to-study-gaba-receptor

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Using an &#945;-Bungarotoxin Binding Site Tag to Study GABA A Receptor Membrane Localization and Trafficking

15.7K ビュー.  University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. ここでは、GABA海馬ニューロンにおける受容体表面局在およびエンドサイトーシスを測定するために、ブンガロトキシンをαに結合された蛍光Alexaの色素の使用を示す。 α-ブンガロトキシンに結合する細胞外の短いタグを有する構築物の使用によって、血漿膜タンパク質のエンドサイトーシス輸送の分析を達成することができる。 

ビデオ: Using an &#945;-Bungarotoxin Binding Site Tag to Study GABA A Receptor Membrane Localization and Trafficking

Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis. Retrieved SVs are then refilled with neurotransmitter and rejoin the recycling pool, defined as SVs that are available for exocytosis1,2. The recycling pool can generally be subdivided into two distinct pools - the readily releasable pool (RRP) and the reserve pool (RP). As their names imply, the RRP consists of SVs that are immediately available for fusion while RP SVs are released only during intense stimulation1,2. It is important to have a reliable assay that reports the differential replenishment of these SV pools in order to understand 1) how SVs traffic after different modes of endocytosis (such as clathrin-dependent endocytosis and activity-dependent bulk endocytosis) and 2) the mechanisms controlling the mobilisation of both the RRP and RP in response to different stimuli.
FM dyes are routinely employed to quantitatively report SV turnover in central nerve terminals3-8. They have a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail that allows reversible partitioning in the lipid bilayer, and a hydrophilic head group that blocks passage across membranes. The dyes have little fluorescence in aqueous solution, but their quantum yield increases dramatically when partitioned in membrane9. Thus FM dyes are ideal fluorescent probes for tracking actively recycling SVs. The standard protocol for use of FM dye is as follows. First they are applied to neurons and are taken up during endocytosis (Figure 1). After non-internalised dye is washed away from the plasma membrane, recycled SVs redistribute within the recycling pool. These SVs are then depleted using unloading stimuli (Figure 1). Since FM dye labelling of SVs is quantal10, the resulting fluorescence drop is proportional to the amount of vesicles released. Thus, the recycling and fusion of SVs generated from the previous round of endocytosis can be reliably quantified.
Here, we present a protocol that has been modified to obtain two additional elements of information. Firstly, sequential unloading stimuli are used to differentially unload the RRP and the RP, to allow quantification of the replenishment of specific SV pools. Secondly, each nerve terminal undergoes the protocol twice. Thus, the response of the same nerve terminal at S1 can be compared against the presence of a test substance at phase S2 (Figure 2), providing an internal control. This is important, since the extent of SV recycling across different nerve terminals is highly variable11.
Any adherent primary neuronal cultures may be used for this protocol, however the plating density, solutions and stimulation conditions are optimised for cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs)12,13.

A live fluorescence imaging technique to quantify the replenishment and mobilisation of specific synaptic vesicle (SV) pools in central nerve terminals is described. Two rounds of SV recycling are monitored in the same nerve terminals providing an internal control.

FM染料を用いて培養小脳顆粒神経細胞のシナプス小胞プールの補充の定量分析

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis.  Retrieved SVs are then refilled with ...

神経科学

Using MazeSuite and Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy to Study Learning in Spatial Navigation

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments1. MazeSuite can be used to design and edit adapted virtual 3D environments, track a participants' behavioral performance within the virtual environment and synchronize with external devices for physiological and neuroimaging measures, including electroencephalogram and eye tracking.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) is an optical brain imaging technique that enables continuous, noninvasive, and portable monitoring of changes in cerebral blood oxygenation related to human brain functions2-7. Over the last decade fNIR is used to effectively monitor cognitive tasks such as attention, working memory and problem solving7-11. fNIR can be implemented in the form of a wearable and minimally intrusive device; it has the capacity to monitor brain activity in ecologically valid environments. 
Cognitive functions assessed through task performance involve patterns of brain activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that vary from the initial novel task performance, after practice and during retention12. Using positron emission tomography (PET), Van Horn and colleagues found that regional cerebral blood flow was activated in the right frontal lobe during the encoding (i.e., initial na&iuml;ve performance) of spatial navigation of virtual mazes while there was little to no activation of the frontal regions after practice and during retention tests. Furthermore, the effects of contextual interference, a learning phenomenon related to organization of practice, are evident when individuals acquire multiple tasks under different practice schedules13,14. High contextual interference (random practice schedule) is created when the tasks to be learned are presented in a non-sequential, unpredictable order. Low contextual interference (blocked practice schedule) is created when the tasks to be learned are presented in a predictable order.
Our goal here is twofold: first to illustrate the experimental protocol design process and the use of MazeSuite, and second, to demonstrate the setup and deployment of the fNIR brain activity monitoring system using Cognitive Optical Brain Imaging (COBI) Studio software15. To illustrate our goals, a subsample from a study is reported to show the use of both MazeSuite and COBI Studio in a single experiment. The study involves the assessment of cognitive activity of the PFC during the acquisition and learning of computer maze tasks for blocked and random orders. Two right-handed adults (one male, one female) performed 315 acquisition, 30 retention and 20 transfer trials across four days. Design, implementation, data acquisition and analysis phases of the study were explained with the intention to provide a guideline for future studies.

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) is an optical brain imaging technique that enables noninvasive and portable monitoring of cerebral blood oxygenation changes. This paper summarizes collective use of MazeSuite and fNIR within a cognitive processing learning paradigm.

空間ナビゲーションで学習研究するために近赤外分光法をMazeSuiteおよび機能の使用

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments1. MazeSuite can be used to design and edit adapted ...

Imaging pHluorin-tagged Receptor Insertion to the Plasma Membrane in Primary Cultured Mouse Neurons

A better understanding of the mechanisms governing receptor trafficking between the plasma membrane (PM) and intracellular compartments requires an experimental approach with excellent spatial and temporal resolutions. Moreover, such an approach must also have the ability to distinguish receptors localized on the PM from those in intracellular compartments. Most importantly, detecting receptors in a single vesicle requires outstanding detection sensitivity, since each vesicle carries only a small number of receptors. Standard approaches for examining receptor trafficking include surface biotinylation followed by biochemical detection, which lacks both the necessary spatial and temporal resolutions; and fluorescence microscopy examination of immunolabeled surface receptors, which requires chemical fixation of cells and therefore lacks sufficient temporal resolution1-6 . To overcome these limitations, we and others have developed and employed a new strategy that enables visualization of the dynamic insertion of receptors into the PM with excellent spatial and temporal resolutions 7-17 . The approach includes tagging of a pH-sensitive GFP, the superecliptic pHluorin 18, to the N-terminal extracellular domain of the receptors. Superecliptic pHluorin has the unique property of being fluorescent at neutral pH and non-fluorescent at acidic pH (pH &lt; 6.0). Therefore, the tagged receptors are non-fluorescent when within the acidic lumen of intracellular trafficking vesicles or endosomal compartments, and they become readily visualized only when exposed to the extracellular neutral pH environment, on the outer surface of the PM. Our strategy consequently allows us to distinguish PM surface receptors from those within intracellular trafficking vesicles. To attain sufficient spatial and temporal resolutions, as well as the sensitivity required to study dynamic trafficking of receptors, we employed total internal reflection fluorescent microscopy (TIRFM), which enabled us to achieve the optimal spatial resolution of optical imaging (~170 nm), the temporal resolution of video-rate microscopy (30 frames/sec), and the sensitivity to detect fluorescence of a single GFP molecule. By imaging pHluorin-tagged receptors under TIRFM, we were able to directly visualize individual receptor insertion events into the PM in cultured neurons. This imaging approach can potentially be applied to any membrane protein with an extracellular domain that could be labeled with superecliptic pHluorin, and will allow dissection of the key detailed mechanisms governing insertion of different membrane proteins (receptors, ion channels, transporters, etc.) to the PM.

By tagging the extracellular domains of membrane receptors with superecliptic pHluorin, and by imaging these fusion receptors in cultured mouse neurons, we can directly visualize individual vesicular insertion events of the receptors to the plasma membrane. This technique will be instrumental in elucidating the molecular mechanisms governing receptor insertion to the plasma membrane.

イメージング初代培養マウス神経細胞における形質膜に受容体の挿入をpHluorinタグ付き

A better understanding of the mechanisms governing receptor trafficking between the plasma membrane (PM) and intracellular compartments requires an ...

Local Application of Drugs to Study Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Function in Mouse Brain Slices

Tobacco use leads to numerous health problems, including cancer, heart disease, emphysema, and stroke. Addiction to cigarette smoking is a prevalent neuropsychiatric disorder that stems from the biophysical and cellular actions of nicotine on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) throughout the central nervous system. Understanding the various nAChR subtypes that exist in brain areas relevant to nicotine addiction is a major priority.
Experiments that employ electrophysiology techniques such as whole-cell patch clamp or two-electrode voltage clamp recordings are useful for pharmacological characterization of nAChRs of interest. Cells expressing nAChRs, such as mammalian tissue culture cells or Xenopus laevis oocytes, are physically isolated and are therefore easily studied using the tools of modern pharmacology. Much progress has been made using these techniques, particularly when the target receptor was already known and ectopic expression was easily achieved. Often, however, it is necessary to study nAChRs in their native environment: in neurons within brain slices acutely harvested from laboratory mice or rats. For example, mice expressing "hypersensitive" nAChR subunits such as &alpha;4 L9&prime;A mice 1 and &alpha;6 L9&prime;S mice 2, allow for unambiguous identification of neurons based on their functional expression of a specific nAChR subunit. Although whole-cell patch clamp recordings from neurons in brain slices is routinely done by the skilled electrophysiologist, it is challenging to locally apply drugs such as acetylcholine or nicotine to the recorded cell within a brain slice. Dilution of drugs into the superfusate (bath application) is not rapidly reversible, and U-tube systems are not easily adapted to work with brain slices.
In this paper, we describe a method for rapidly applying nAChR-activating drugs to neurons recorded in adult mouse brain slices. Standard whole-cell recordings are made from neurons in slices, and a second micropipette filled with a drug of interest is maneuvered into position near the recorded cell. An injection of pressurized air or inert nitrogen into the drug-filled pipette causes a small amount of drug solution to be ejected from the pipette onto the recorded cell. Using this method, nAChR-mediated currents are able to be resolved with millisecond accuracy. Drug application times can easily be varied, and the drug-filled pipette can be retracted and replaced with a new pipette, allowing for concentration-response curves to be created for a single neuron. Although described in the context of nAChR neurobiology, this technique should be useful for studying many types of ligand-gated ion channels or receptors in neurons from brain slices.

In this paper, we describe a useful method to study ligand-gated ion channel function in neurons of acutely isolated brain slices. This method involves the use of a drug-filled micropipette for local application of drugs to neurons recorded using standard patch clamp techniques.

マウスの脳スライスにおけるニコチン性アセチルコリン受容体機能を研究するための薬物のローカルアプリケーション

Tobacco use leads to numerous health problems, including cancer, heart disease, emphysema, and stroke. Addiction to cigarette smoking is a prevalent ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

グルタミン酸とGABAの高速マイクロイオン導入：シナプス統合を調査するために便利なツール

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Membrane Potential Dye Imaging of Ventromedial Hypothalamus Neurons From Adult Mice to Study Glucose Sensing

Studies of neuronal activity are often performed using neurons from rodents less than 2 months of age due to the technical difficulties associated with increasing connective tissue and decreased neuronal viability that occur with age. Here, we describe a methodology for the dissociation of healthy hypothalamic neurons from adult-aged mice. The ability to study neurons from adult-aged mice allows the use of disease models that manifest at a later age and might be more developmentally accurate for certain studies. Fluorescence imaging of dissociated neurons can be used to study the activity of a population of neurons, as opposed to using electrophysiology to study a single neuron. This is particularly useful when studying a heterogeneous neuronal population in which the desired neuronal type is rare such as for hypothalamic glucose sensing neurons. We utilized membrane potential dye imaging of adult ventromedial hypothalamic neurons to study their responses to changes in extracellular glucose. Glucose sensing neurons are believed to play a role in central regulation of energy balance. The ability to study glucose sensing in adult rodents is particularly useful since the predominance of diseases related to dysfunctional energy balance (e.g.&#160;obesity) increase with age.

The activity of single neurons from adult-aged mice can be studied by dissociating neurons from specific brain regions and using fluorescent membrane potential dye imaging. By testing responses to changes in glucose, this technique can be used to study the glucose sensitivity of adult ventromedial hypothalamic neurons.

グルコース感知を勉強する成体マウス由来の膜視床下部腹内側部のニューロンの電位色素イメージング

Studies of neuronal activity are often performed using neurons from rodents less than 2 months of age due to the technical difficulties associated with ...

Brain Slice Biotinylation: An Ex Vivo Approach to Measure Region-specific Plasma Membrane Protein Trafficking in Adult Neurons

Regulated endocytic trafficking is the central mechanism facilitating a variety of neuromodulatory events, by dynamically controlling receptor, ion channel, and transporter cell surface presentation on a minutes time scale.&#160;There is a broad diversity of mechanisms that control endocytic trafficking of individual proteins. Studies investigating the molecular underpinnings of trafficking have primarily relied upon surface biotinylation to quantitatively measure changes in membrane protein surface expression in response to exogenous stimuli and gene manipulation.&#160;However, this approach has been mainly limited to cultured cells, which may not faithfully reflect the physiologically relevant mechanisms at play in adult neurons.&#160;Moreover, cultured cell approaches may underestimate region-specific differences in trafficking mechanisms.&#160;Here, we describe an approach that extends cell surface biotinylation to the acute brain slice preparation.&#160;We demonstrate that this method provides a high-fidelity approach to measure rapid changes in membrane protein surface levels in adult neurons.&#160;This approach is likely to have broad utility in the field of neuronal endocytic trafficking.

Brain Slice Biotinylation: An Ex Vivo Approach to Measure Region-specific Plasma Membrane Protein Trafficking in Adult Neurons

Neuronal membrane trafficking dynamically controls plasma membrane protein availability and significantly impacts neurotransmission.&#160;To date, it has been challenging to measure neuronal endocytic trafficking in adult neurons.&#160;Here, we describe a highly effective, quantitative method to measure rapid changes in surface protein expression ex vivo in acute brain slices.

脳スライスビオチン：<em&gt;生体外</emアダルトニューロンにおいて地域固有の細胞膜のタンパク質輸送を測定するために&gt;の取り組み

Regulated endocytic trafficking is the central mechanism facilitating a variety of neuromodulatory events, by dynamically controlling receptor, ion ...

Localization of Odorant Receptor Genes in Locust Antennae by RNA In Situ Hybridization

Insects have evolved sophisticated olfactory reception systems to sense exogenous chemical signals. These chemical signals are transduced by Olfactory Receptor Neurons (ORNs) housed in hair-like structures, called chemosensilla, of the antennae. On the ORNs&#39; membranes, Odorant Receptors (ORs) are believed to be involved in odor coding. Thus, being able to identify genes localized to the ORNs is necessary to recognize OR genes, and provides a fundamental basis for further functional in situ studies. The RNA expression levels of specific ORs in insect antennae are very low, and preserving insect tissue for histology is challenging. Thus, it is difficult to localize an OR to a specific type of sensilla using RNA in situ hybridization. In this paper, a detailed and highly effective RNA in situ hybridization protocol particularly for lowly expressed OR genes of insects, is introduced. In addition, a specific OR gene was identified by conducting double-color fluorescent in situ hybridization experiments using a co-expressing receptor gene, Orco, as a marker.

Localization of Odorant Receptor Genes in Locust Antennae by RNA In Situ Hybridization

This paper describes a detailed and highly effective RNA in situ hybridization protocol particularly for low-level expressed Odorant Receptor (OR) genes, as well as other genes, in insect antennae using digoxigenin (DIG)-labeled or biotin-labeled probes.

Locust AntennaeにおけるRNAによる嗅覚受容体遺伝子の局在<em&gt;現場で</em&gt;ハイブリダイゼーション

Insects have evolved sophisticated olfactory reception systems to sense exogenous chemical signals. These chemical signals are transduced by Olfactory ...

Live Images of GLUT4 Protein Trafficking in Mouse Primary Hypothalamic Neurons Using Deconvolution Microscopy

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health crisis which is characterized by insulin signaling impairment and chronic inflammation in peripheral tissues. The hypothalamus in the central nervous system (CNS) is the control center for energy and insulin signal response regulation. Chronic inflammation in peripheral tissues and imbalances of certain chemokines (such as CCL5, TNF&#945;, and IL-6) contribute to diabetes and obesity. However, the functional mechanism(s) connecting chemokines and hypothalamic insulin signal regulation still remain unclear.
In vitro primary neuron culture models are convenient and simple models which can be used to investigate insulin signal regulation in hypothalamic neurons. In this study, we introduced exogeneous GLUT4 protein conjugated with GFP (GFP-GLUT4) into primary hypothalamic neurons to track GLUT4 membrane translocation upon insulin stimulation. Time-lapse images of GFP-GLUT4 protein trafficking were recorded by deconvolution microscopy, which allowed users to generate high-speed, high-resolution images without damaging the neurons significantly while conducting the experiment. The contribution of CCR5 in insulin regulated GLUT4 translocation was observed in CCR5 deficient hypothalamic neurons, which were isolated and cultured from CCR5 knockout mice. Our results demonstrated that the GLUT4 membrane translocation efficiency was reduced in CCR5 deficient hypothalamic neurons after insulin stimulation.

This protocol describes a technique for observation of real-time Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) tagged Glucose Transporter 4 (GLUT4) protein trafficking upon insulin stimulation and characterization of the biological role of CCR5 in the insulin&#8211;GLUT4 signaling pathway with Deconvolution Microscopy.

GLUT4 タンパク質デコンボリューション顕微鏡を用いたマウス一次視床下部ニューロンにおける人身売買のライブ映像

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health crisis which is characterized by insulin signaling impairment and chronic inflammation in peripheral ...

An Alternative Approach to Study Primary Events in Neurodegeneration Using Ex Vivo Rat Brain Slices

Despite&#160;numerous studies that attempt to develop reliable animal models&#160;which reflecting the primary processes underlying neurodegeneration, very few have been widely accepted. Here, we propose&#160;a new procedure&#160;adapted from the well-known ex vivo brain slice technique, which offers a closer in vivo-like scenario than in vitro preparations, for investigating the early events triggering cell degeneration, as observed in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). This variation consists of simple and easily reproducible steps, which enable preservation of the anatomical cytoarchitecture of the selected brain region and its local functionality in a physiological milieu. Different anatomical areas can be obtained from the same brain, providing the opportunity to perform multiple experiments with the treatments in question in a site-, dose-, and time-dependent manner. Potential limitations&#160;which could affect the outcomes related to this methodology are related to the conservation of the tissue, i.e., the maintenance of its anatomical integrity during the slicing and incubation steps and the section thickness, which can influence the biochemical and immunohistochemical analysis. This approach can be employed for different purposes, such as exploring molecular mechanisms involved in physiological or pathological conditions, drug screening, or dose-response assays. Finally, this protocol could also reduce the number of animals employed in behavioral studies. The application reported here has been recently described and tested for the first time on ex vivo rat brain slices containing the basal forebrain (BF), which is one of the cerebral regions primarily affected in AD. Specifically, it has been demonstrated that the administration of a toxic peptide derived from the C-terminus of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) could prompt an AD-like profile, triggering, along the antero-posterior axis of the BF, a differential expression of proteins altered in AD, such as the alpha7 nicotinic receptor (&#945;7-nAChR), phosphorylated Tau (p-Tau), and amyloid beta (A&#946;).

An Alternative Approach to Study Primary Events in Neurodegeneration Using Ex Vivo Rat Brain Slices

We present a method which can&#160;provide further insights into the early events underlying neurodegeneration and based on the established ex-vivo brain technique, combining the advantages of in vivo and in vitro experiments. Moreover, it represents a unique opportunity for direct comparison of treated and untreated group in the same anatomical plane.

Ex Vivoラット脳切片を用いた神経変性疾患の主要なイベントを勉強する方法

Despite&#160;numerous studies that attempt to develop reliable animal models&#160;which reflecting the primary processes underlying neurodegeneration, ...