この作品は、MEP（BB / H010297 / 1）、SARにBBSRCクォータの学生の身分、およびSWFへのMRC学生の身分にBBSRCの助成金によって賄われていました。

<ol>
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The authors have no competing financial interests.

このプロトコールの重要な部分は、通常、加工分泌され、結合した蛍光部分を有するにもかかわらず、受容細胞における応答を誘発することができる生物学的に活性なリガンドを生成しています。これは、蛍光タグを付けた遺伝子産物は、適切なアッセイを用いて生物学的に活性であることを確立することが重要です。 Shh-GFPについては、PTC1の発現を活性化する能力は、16を確...

初期胚発生時には、細胞が徐々に分化の特定の系統に従うことを約束されています。これは、全能性（または多能性）の基を意味し、細胞が徐々に一つの細胞型を生じると判断前駆細胞の集団を確立するに限定となります。細胞間シグナル伝達は、胚発生時の系統仕様の規制の中心です。これらの信号の操作は、新規な治療法をサポートするために、特定の運命に向かって直接幹細胞に必要とされます。 シグナル伝達経路の比較的小さな数は、TGFスーパーファミリー（nodalsとのBMP）1-2、FGFの3、4のWnt、およびハリネズミ5への応答経路を含め、開発中に繰り返されます。これらの分泌されたタンパク質は、それによって遺伝子発現および/または細胞の挙動を変化させるシグナル伝達を活性化する細胞膜に存在する受容体に結合します。細胞標識の厳しい規制エイリングは、細胞系譜の仕様と正常な発達に不可欠です。これらの経路の間でのクロストークは、細胞の運命を決定するのに重要であるが、単一のリガンドは、それ自体、異なる濃度で異なる応答を誘発することができます。モルフォゲン勾配は細胞型はセル 6の分野から派生することができますどのように異なる説明する理論として100年以上前に説明しました。細胞の一つのグループによって生成シグナリング分子は、ソースからの長い距離と濃度の減少、一定の範囲で拡散することができます。信号に曝露された細胞は、異なる位置での細胞が信号の異なるレベルに対して異なる応答すると、電池の分野での位置で局所濃度に応答します。モルフォゲンの存在の証拠は、初期のショウジョウバエ胚7と翼のディスク 8と同様に、脊椎動物の四肢9と神経管10の研究から来ています。 方法は、中に必要とされています確立され、これらの勾配を調節する上で重要な他の分子を同定する方法をモルフォゲン勾配vestigate。異なる遺伝的背景との関連で、インビボで内因性タンパク質を可視化するために免疫組織化学を用いた上品な実験は、モルフォゲン勾配11-12を研究するために使用されています。しかし、優れた抗体および特定の変異体は、常に利用可能ではないので、我々は、代替、外因性遺伝子産物が細胞のフィールド全体でのリガンドの分布に影響を与えることができる方法を詳細に分析するための簡単​​な方法を提供することで、アフリカツメガエルにおける蛍光リガンドの過剰発現を使用して、ここでのプロトコルを記述します。 アフリカツメガエルは、彼らが最も初期の段階でアクセス可能であるので、その胚は、外部開発する実験のこれらのタイプに着手するための優れたシステムを提供します。サイズが大きい（直径1〜1.5ミリメートル）は、マイクロインジェクションおよび外科操作を簡素化し、胞胚によって、彼らはまだ約20（比較的大きいですように、細胞は、画像に簡単ですステージ81;）全体でmは。アフリカツメガエルにおける過剰発現の研究​​を行うのは簡単である：mRNAは、初期胚に注入し、特定の細胞を標的とすることができ、効率的に翻訳されています。 蛍光タグ付けWnt8a / Wnt11b-HA-EGFP構築物は、PCS2 Wnt8a-HA 13、PCS2 Wnt11b-HA 14およびEGFPを用いて作製しました。 HAペプチドは、追加の分子タグを提供するだけでなく、含まれることが重要であるが、それは両方の遺伝子産物が機能することを可能にするのWntおよびEGFPタンパク質を分離するスペーサーとして作用すると考えられるからです。 Shhの可視化のために使用される構築物は、以前のShh-EGFP融合タンパク質15を発現するトランスジェニックマウスを生成しました。これは親切にアンディ・マクマホンによって提供されました。重要なことは、すべての構築物について、GFPタグは、それが処理した後に保持されるようなシグナル配列の3 &#39;側にクローニングされます。そのようなadditio、最終タンパク質は、修正するために必要な配列を含むことを確実にするためにも不可欠です脂質のnが合成mRNAのprodution用に最適化されPCS2 +発現ベクターにサブクローニングしたのShhおよびWnt ligands.TheのcDNAの場合です。それは、SP6プロモーターおよびポリアデニル化シグナル（http://sitemaker.umich.edu/dlturner.vectors）を含みます。 ここで説明する作業は、分泌および蛍光の拡散を比較するための単純なプロトコルがWntとのShhは、リガンドをタグ付けタグ付けています。合成mRNAの規定量を注入することにより、プロトコルが異なるプロモーターを使用して、異なるベクターからの変数式に関連するすべての問題を一周します。これらのメソッドは、最近のShh-EGFPおよびWnt8a /アフリカツメガエル16-17でWnt11b-HA-EGFP分泌および拡散にヘパラン硫酸endosulfatase Sulf1の影響を調査するために適用されています。

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Melford</td>
			<td>MB 1200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium acetate</td>
			<td>Ambion</td>
			<td>From Megascript SP6 Kit AM 1330</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bicarbonate</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>RC-091</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium nitrate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C13961</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cap analog (m7G(5&#39;))</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems</td>
			<td>AM 8050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C 2432</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;L-Cysteine hydrochloride monohydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C7880</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dNTPs</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>18427-013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>O3690</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>20821.33</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ficoll 400</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>F 4375</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiji image J software</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Free download http://fiji.sc/Fiji</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gentamycin</td>
			<td>Melford</td>
			<td>G 0124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glacial acetic acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A/0400/PB17</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass cover slips, No.1.5&#160;</td>
			<td>Scientific Laboratory Supplies</td>
			<td>22X22-SGJ3015. 22X50-SGJ3030&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass needle puller</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>Narishige PC -10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass pull needles</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific</td>
			<td>3-000-203-G/X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human chronic gonadotropin (HCG)</td>
			<td>Intervet</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P/7500/PB17</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lithium chloride (LiCl)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>L-7026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LSM710 and Zen software (2008-2010)</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matlab software</td>
			<td>Mathworks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>http://uk.mathworks.com/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Molecular grade water&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP 2819-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nail varnish&#160;</td>
			<td>Boots</td>
			<td>Bar code 3600530 373048</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Lab.tech International</td>
			<td>ND-1000 / ND8000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish (55mm)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>391-0865</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol-chloroform</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P3803</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photoshop software</td>
			<td>Adobe</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>http://www.photoshop.com/products</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High fidelity DNA polymerase and buffers&#160;</td>
			<td>Biolabs</td>
			<td>M0530S&#160; Buffer - M0531S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P/4280/53</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVC insulation tape</td>
			<td>Onecall</td>
			<td>SH5006MPK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel extraction kit&#160;</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>S28704</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction enzymes buffers</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td colspan="2">SuRE/CUT Buffer Set 11082 035 001</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNAse-free DNAse</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>ME10A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Steel back single edge blades</td>
			<td>Personna</td>
			<td>66-0403-0000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>27810.364</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SP6 transcription kit</td>
			<td>Ambion</td>
			<td>AM1330</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass slides</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>SHE 2505</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris base</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15504-020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tungsten needles</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>homemade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zen lite software</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Free download&#160; http://www.zeiss.co.uk/microscopy/en_gb/downloads/zen.html</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using confocal analysis of xenopus laevis to investigate modulators of wnt and shh morphogen gradients

このプロトコルは、電池の分野にわたって分散リガンドを可視化する方法を説明しています。一緒に初期胚での細胞のサイズが大きいと、外因性タンパク質を発現の容易さは、 アフリカツメガエルは 、GFPタグ付きリガンドを可視化するための有用なモデルを アフリカツメガエル 作ります。合成mRNAは効率的に早期 アフリカツメガエル胚に 注入した後に翻訳され、注射は、単一の細胞を標的とすることができます。このような膜つながRFPとして系統のトレーサーと組み合わせると、過剰発現されたタンパク質を産生している細胞注入（とその子孫）を容易に追跡することができます。このプロトコルは、注入されたmRNAからWntおよびShhのリガンドをタグ付けされた蛍光を製造するための方法を説明します。方法はマイルを伴います外胚葉外植（アニマルキャップ）と、複数のサンプル中のリガンド拡散の解析のCRO解剖。共焦点イメージングを用いて、細胞のフィールド上のリガンドの分泌および拡散についての情報を得ることができます。共焦点画像の統計分析は、リガンド勾配の形で定量的データを提供します。これらの方法は、モルフォゲン勾配の形状を調節することができる因子の効果を試験する研究に有用であり得ます。

蛍光タグ付きタンパク質を発現アニマルキャップの外植片の共焦点分析は、異なる実験条件の下でのリガンド分布を可視化するための効果的なシステムを提供します。一例では、GFPの分布のShhは、（ 図1）が示されているタグを付けました。 2細胞期では、 アフリカツメガエル胚は対照mRNAとまたはmRNAはSulf1、細胞表面ヘパラン硫酸を変更し、Shhのモルフォゲン勾配16に?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using Confocal Analysis of Xenopus laevis to Investigate Modulators of Wnt and Shh Morphogen Gradients at JoVE.com

Using Confocal Analysis of Xenopus laevis to Investigate Modulators of Wnt and Shh Morphogen Gradients

ここで原稿がアフリカツメガエルにおける蛍光タグ付きリガンドの分泌と普及を分析するための方法の簡単なセットを提供します。これは、リガンドの分布を変更するための他のタンパク質の能力を試験し、モルフォゲン勾配を調節するメカニズムへの洞察を与えることが実験を可能にするためのコンテキストを提供します。

の共焦点分析を用いました<em&gt;アフリカツメガエル</em&gt; WntおよびShhのモルフォゲン勾配の調節を調査するために、

This protocol describes a method to visualise ligands distributed across a field of cells. The ease of expressing exogenous proteins, together with the ...

using-confocal-analysis-xenopus-laevis-to-investigate-modulators-wnt

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Using Confocal Analysis of Xenopus laevis to Investigate Modulators of Wnt and Shh Morphogen Gradients

11.0K ビュー.  The Bateson Centre, University of Sheffield.  ここで原稿がアフリカツメガエルにおける蛍光タグ付きリガンドの分泌と普及を分析するための方法の簡単なセットを提供します。これは、リガンドの分布を変更するための他のタンパク質の能力を試験し、モルフォゲン勾配を調節するメカニズムへの洞察を与えることが実験を可能にするためのコンテキストを提供します。 ...

ビデオ: Using Confocal Analysis of Xenopus laevis to Investigate Modulators of Wnt and Shh Morphogen Gradients

Understanding Early Organogenesis Using a Simplified In Situ Hybridization Protocol in Xenopus

Organogenesis is the study of how organs are specified and then acquire their specific shape and functions during development. The Xenopuslaevis embryo is very useful for studying organogenesis because their large size makes them very suitable for identifying organs at the earliest steps in organogenesis. At this time, the primary method used for identifying a specific organ or primordium is whole mount in situ hybridization with labeled antisense RNA probes specific to a gene that is expressed in the organ of interest. In addition, it is relatively easy to manipulate genes or signaling pathways in Xenopus and in situ hybridization allows one to then assay for changes in the presence or morphology of a target organ. Whole mount in situ hybridization is a multi-day protocol with many steps involved. Here we provide a simplified protocol with reduced numbers of steps and reagents used that works well for routine assays. In situ hybridization robots have greatly facilitated the process and we detail how and when we utilize that technology in the process. Once an in situ hybridization is complete, capturing the best image of the result can be frustrating. We provide advice on how to optimize imaging of in situ hybridization results. Although the protocol describes assessing organogenesis in Xenopus laevis, the same basic protocol can almost certainly be adapted to Xenopus tropicalis and other model systems.

Understanding Early Organogenesis Using a Simplified In Situ Hybridization Protocol in Xenopus

The Xenopus laevis embryo continues to be exceptionally useful in the study of early development due to its large size and ease of manipulation. A simplified protocol for whole mount in situ hybridization protocol is provided that can be used in the identification of specific organs in this model system.

簡体字を使用した初期の器官形成の理解<em&gt;その場で</em&gt;ハイブリダイゼーションプロトコルで<em&gt;アフリカツメガエル</em

Organogenesis is the study of how organs are specified and then acquire their specific shape and functions during development.  The Xenopuslaevis embryo ...

発生生物学

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during oogenesis. In order to study roles of such maternal factors in early embryonic development, it is desirable to manipulate their functions from the very beginning of embryonic development. Conventional ways of gene interference are achieved by injection of antisense oligonucleotides (oligos) or mRNA into fertilized eggs, enabling under- or over-expression of specific proteins, respectively. However, these methods normally require more than several hours until protein expression is affected, and, hence, the interference of gene functions is not effective during early embryonic stages. Here, we introduce an experimental system in which expression levels of maternal proteins can be altered before fertilization. Xenopus laevis oocytes obtained from ovaries are defolliculated by incubating with enzymes. Antisense oligos or mRNAs are injected into defolliculated oocytes at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage. These oocytes are in vitro matured to eggs at the metaphase II (MII) stage, followed by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). By this way, up to 10% of ICSI embryos can reach the swimming tadpole stage, thus allowing functional tests of specific gene knockdown or overexpression. This approach can be a useful way to study roles of maternally stored factors in early embryonic development.

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

We describe methods of manipulating Xenopus laevis immature oocytes, in vitro maturation of oocytes to eggs, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection. This protocol allows degradation of some maternal proteins and overexpression of genes of interest at fertilization, and hence is valuable to study roles of specific factors in early embryonic development.

操作と<em&gt;インビトロ</emの&gt;成熟<em&gt;アフリカツメガエル</em細胞質内精子注入し&gt;卵母細胞、胚発生を研究するために

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during ...

Functional Cloning Using a Xenopus Oocyte Expression System

Identification of genes responsible for embryonic induction poses a number of challenges; to name a few, secreted molecules of interest may be low in abundance, may not be secreted but tethered to the signaling cell(s), or may require the presence of binding partners or upstream regulatory molecules. Thus in a search for gene products capable of eliciting an early lens-inductive response in competent ectoderm, we utilized an expression cloning system that would allow identification of paracrine or juxtacrine factors as well as transcriptional or other regulatory proteins. Pools of mRNA were injected into Xenopus oocytes, and responding tissue placed directly on the oocytes and co-cultured. Following functional cloning of ldb1 from a neural plate stage cDNA library based on its ability to elicit the expression of the early lens placode marker foxe3 in lens-competent animal cap ectoderm, we characterized the mRNA expression pattern, and assayed developmental progression following overexpression or knockdown of ldb1. This system is suitable in a very wide variety of contexts where identification of an inducer or its upstream regulatory molecules is sought using a functional response in competent tissue.

Functional Cloning Using a Xenopus Oocyte Expression System

We describe a Xenopus oocyte and animal cap system for the expression cloning of genes capable of inducing a response in competent ectoderm, and discuss techniques for the subsequent analysis of such genes. This system is useful in the functional identification of a wide range of gene products.

用いた機能クローニング<em&gt;アフリカツメガエル</em&gt;卵母細胞発現システム

Identification of genes responsible for embryonic induction poses a number of challenges; to name a few, secreted molecules of interest may be low in ...

Loss- and Gain-of-function Approach to Investigate Early Cell Fate Determinants in Preimplantation Mouse Embryos

Gene silencing and overexpression techniques are instrumental for the identification of genes involved in embryonic development. Direct target gene modification in preimplantation embryos provides a means to study the underlying mechanisms of genes implicated in, for instance, cellular differentiation into the trophectoderm (TE) and the inner cell mass (ICM). Here, we describe a protocol that examines the role of neogenin as an authentic receptor for initial cell fate determination in preimplantation mouse embryos. First, we discuss the experimental manipulations that were used to produce gain and loss of neogenin function by microinjecting neogenin cDNA and shRNA; the effectiveness of this approach was confirmed by a strong correlation between the pair-wise expression levels of either red fluorescent protein (RFP) or green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the immunocytochemical quantification of neogenin expression. Secondly, overexpression of neogenin in preimplantation mouse embryos leads to normal ICM development while neogenin knockdown causes the ICM to develop abnormally, implying that neogenin could be a receptor that relays extracellular cues to drive blastomeres to early cell fates. Given the success of this detailed protocol in investigating the function of a novel embryonic developmental stage-specific receptor, we propose that it has the potential to aid in exploration and identification of other stage-specific genes during embryogenesis.

The goal of this protocol is to describe a loss- and gain-of function method that is applicable to identify neogenin as a stage-specific receptor that leads to trophectoderm and inner cell mass differentiation in preimplantation mouse embryos.

loss-が及び着床前マウス胚の初期の細胞運命決定要因を調査するための機能獲得型のアプローチ

 Gene silencing and overexpression techniques are instrumental for the identification of genes involved in embryonic development. Direct target gene ...

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus embryos are large, develop externally, and can be easily manipulated by microinjection or surgical procedures. In addition, fate maps have been established for early Xenopus embryos. Targeted microinjection into the individual blastomere that will eventually give rise to an organ or tissue of interest can be used to selectively overexpress or knock down gene expression within this restricted region, decreasing secondary effects in the rest of the developing embryo. In this protocol, we describe how to utilize established Xenopus fate maps to target the developing Xenopus kidney (the pronephros), through microinjection into specific blastomere of 4- and 8-cell embryos. Injection of lineage tracers allows verification of the specific targeting of the injection. After embryos have developed to stage 38 - 40, whole-mount immunostaining is used to visualize pronephric development, and the contribution by targeted cells to the pronephros can be assessed. The same technique can be adapted to target other tissue types in addition to the pronephros.

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

Here, we present a protocol to use fate maps and lineage tracers to target injections into individual blastomeres that give rise to the kidney of Xenopus laevis embryos.

開発にターゲットマイクロインジェクションのテクニック<em&gt;アフリカツメガエル</em&gt;腎臓

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus ...

Studying Wnt Signaling During Patterning of Conducting Airways

Wnt signaling pathways play critical roles during development of the respiratory tract. Defining precise mechanisms of differentiation and morphogenesis controlled by Wnt signaling is required to understand how tissues are patterned during normal development. This knowledge is also critical to determine the etiology of birth defects such as lung hypoplasia and tracheobronchomalacia. Analysis of earliest stages of development of respiratory tract imposes challenges, as the limited amount of tissue prevents the performance of standard protocols better suited for postnatal studies. In this paper, we discuss methodologies to study cell differentiation and proliferation in the respiratory tract. We describe techniques such as whole mount staining, processing of the tissue for confocal microscopy and immunofluorescence in paraffin sections applied to developing tracheal lung. We also discuss methodologies for the study of tracheal mesenchyme differentiation, in particular cartilage formation. Approaches and techniques discussed in the current paper circumvent the limitation of material while working with embryonic tissue, allowing for a better understanding of the patterning process of developing conducting airways.

The use of reporter mice coupled to whole mount and section staining, microscopy and in vivo assays facilitates the analysis of mechanisms underlying the normal patterning of the respiratory tract. Here we describe how these techniques contributed to the analysis of Wnt signaling during tracheal development.

誘導気道のパターニング時にWntシグナル伝達を学びます

Wnt signaling pathways play critical roles during development of the respiratory tract. Defining precise mechanisms of differentiation and morphogenesis ...

Building Finite Element Models to Investigate Zebrafish Jaw Biomechanics

Skeletal morphogenesis occurs through tightly regulated cell behaviors during development; many cell types alter their behavior in response to mechanical strain. Skeletal joints are subjected to dynamic mechanical loading. Finite element analysis (FEA) is a computational method, frequently used in engineering that can predict how a material or structure will respond to mechanical input. By dividing a whole system (in this case the zebrafish jaw skeleton) into a mesh of smaller 'finite elements', FEA can be used to calculate the mechanical response of the structure to external loads. The results can be visualized in many ways including as a 'heat map' showing the position of maximum and minimum principal strains (a positive principal strain indicates tension while a negative indicates compression. The maximum and minimum refer the largest and smallest strain). These can be used to identify which regions of the jaw and therefore which cells are likely to be under particularly high tensional or compressional loads during jaw movement and can therefore be used to identify relationships between mechanical strain and cell behavior. This protocol describes the steps to generate Finite Element models from confocal image data on the musculoskeletal system, using the zebrafish lower jaw as a practical example. The protocol leads the reader through a series of steps: 1) staining of the musculoskeletal components, 2) imaging the musculoskeletal components, 3) building a 3 dimensional (3D) surface, 4) generating a mesh of Finite Elements, 5) solving the FEA and finally 6) validating the results by comparison to real displacements seen in movements of the fish jaw.

Finite Element Analysis is a frequently used tool to investigate the mechanical performance of structures under load. Here we apply its use to modeling the biomechanics of the zebrafish jaw.

ゼブラフィッシュジョーバイオメカニクスを調査するために有限要素モデルの構築

Skeletal morphogenesis occurs through tightly regulated cell behaviors during development; many cell types alter their behavior in response to mechanical ...

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The efficient in vivo visualization of blood vessels and the reliable quantification of their complexity are key to understanding the biology and disease of the vascular network. Here, we provide a detailed method to visualize blood vessels with a commercially available fluorescent dye, human plasma acetylated low density lipoprotein DiI complex (DiI-AcLDL), and to quantify their complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be labeled by a simple injection of DiI-AcLDL into the beating heart of an embryo, and blood vessels in the entire embryo can be imaged in live or fixed embryos. Combined with gene perturbation by the targeted microinjection of nucleic acids and/or the bath application of pharmacological reagents, the roles of a gene or of a signaling pathway on vascular development can be investigated within one week without resorting to sophisticated genetically engineered animals. Because of the well-defined venous system of Xenopus and its stereotypic angiogenesis, the sprouting of pre-existing vessels, vessel complexity can be quantified efficiently after perturbation experiments. This relatively simple protocol should serve as an easily accessible tool in diverse fields of cardiovascular research.

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

This protocol demonstrates a fluorescence-based method to visualize the vasculature and to quantify its complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be imaged minutes after the injection of a fluorescent dye into the beating heart of an embryo after genetic and/or pharmacological manipulations to study cardiovascular development in vivo.

の胚性血管新生の可視化と定量分析<em&gt;ツメガエル</em

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The ...

Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles

The primary visual projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis serves as an excellent model system for studying mechanisms that regulate the development of neuronal connectivity. During establishment of the retino-tectal projection, optic axons extend from the eye and navigate through distinct regions of the brain to reach their target tissue, the optic tectum. Once optic axons enter the tectum, they elaborate terminal arbors that function to increase the number of synaptic connections they can make with target interneurons in the tectum. Here, we describe a method to express DNA encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP), and gain- and loss-of-function gene constructs, in optic neurons (retinal ganglion cells) in Xenopus embryos. We explain how to microinject a combined DNA/lipofection reagent into eyebuds of one day old embryos such that exogenous genes are expressed in single or small numbers of optic neurons. By tagging genes with GFP or co-injecting with a GFP plasmid, terminal axonal arbors of individual optic neurons with altered molecular signaling can be imaged directly in brains of intact, living Xenopus tadpoles several days later, and their morphology can be quantified. This protocol allows for determination of cell-autonomous molecular mechanisms that underlie the development of optic axon arborization in vivo.

Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles

This protocol aims to demonstrate how to microinject a DNA/DOTAP mixture into eyebuds of one day old Xenopus laevis embryos, and how to image and reconstruct individual green fluorescent protein (GFP) expressing optic axonal arbors in tectal midbrains of intact, living Xenopus tadpoles.

キセノプス・レービス胚における眼芽へのDNAのマイクロインジェクションとGFPのイメージングは、無傷で光学軸軸樹園を発現し、生きているキセノプス・タマジャクシ

The primary visual projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis serves as an excellent model system for studying mechanisms that regulate the ...

Fluorescent Calcium Imaging and Subsequent In Situ Hybridization for Neuronal Precursor Characterization in Xenopus laevis

Spontaneous intracellular calcium activity can be observed in a variety of cell types and is proposed to play critical roles in a variety of physiological processes. In particular, appropriate regulation of calcium activity patterns during embryogenesis is necessary for many aspects of vertebrate neural development, including proper neural tube closure, synaptogenesis, and neurotransmitter phenotype specification. While the observation that calcium activity patterns can differ in both frequency and amplitude suggests a compelling mechanism by which these fluxes might transmit encoded signals to downstream effectors and regulate gene expression, existing population-level approaches have lacked the precision necessary to further explore this possibility. Furthermore, these approaches limit studies of the role of cell-cell interactions by precluding the ability to assay the state of neuronal determination in the absence of cell-cell contact. Therefore, we have established an experimental workflow that pairs time-lapse calcium imaging of dissociated neuronal explants with a fluorescence in situ hybridization assay, allowing the unambiguous correlation of calcium activity pattern with molecular phenotype on a single-cell level. We were successfully able to use this approach to distinguish and characterize specific calcium activity patterns associated with differentiating neural cells and neural progenitor cells, respectively; beyond this, however, the experimental framework described in this article could be readily adapted to investigate correlations between any time-series activity profile and expression of a gene or genes of interest.

Fluorescent Calcium Imaging and Subsequent In Situ Hybridization for Neuronal Precursor Characterization in Xenopus laevis

We present a two-part protocol that combines fluorescent calcium imaging with in situ hybridization, allowing the experimenter to correlate patterns of calcium activity with gene expression profiles on a single-cell level.

ゼノプス・ラエビスにおける神経前駆体特性評価のための蛍光カルシウムイメージングとその後のその後の位置ハイブリダイゼーション

Spontaneous intracellular calcium activity can be observed in a variety of cell types and is proposed to play critical roles in a variety of physiological ...