著者は、Matlab コードを実行している彼のためのダニエルの Korus 学部と学部アレックス ベッチャー行動実験を実行している彼の援助に感謝したいと思います。このプロジェクトは、R.L.M. に NSF IOS 1256799 によって薬物乱用賞番号 T32DA007234 の下で健康の国民の協会の国立研究所でサポートされています。

<ol>
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E., Pennartz, C. M., Groenewegen, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cellular+framework+for+chemical+signaling+in+the+nucleus+accumbens.">The cellular framework for chemical signaling in the nucleus accumbens.</a> Prog Brain Res. 99, 3-24 (1993).</li><li>Hedges, V. L., Staffend, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+mechanisms+of+reproduction+in+females+as+a+predisposing+factor+for+drug+addiction.">Neural mechanisms of reproduction in females as a predisposing factor for drug addiction.</a> Front Neuroendocrinol. 31 (2), 217-231 (2010).</li></ol>

著者が明らかに何もありません。

比較的簡単ですが、この手法を採用する場合にいくつかの問題が発生します。まず、プローブの固定配置が正確でなければならない: マイクロダイアリシス プローブを取り巻く細胞外の環境のより広い半径でサンプルするとは異なりこの手法のみの直接接触に入って来る物質の計測が可能プローブ。第二に、繊維の幅が狭いため、炭素繊維の記録の場合破損が発生することができますと意図?...

目を覚まし行動中の動物の伝達物質の放出を測定する機能により、神経伝達の両方を生み出す機構と回路を調査するための強力なツールの時空間パターンの特定の動作をリンクする研究者自然リアルタイムでオペラント行動。歴史的に、脳1の細胞外の環境の両方の電気的反応性、非反応性の物質を測定するマイクロダイアリシスを採用されています。この技法は、先端が中空の半透膜2の小さいシャフトから成るマイクロダイアリシス プローブを細胞外液に類似のイオン組成の水溶液の連続的な流れを使用します。高速液体クロマトグラフィー (HPLC)、によってその後の分析のための間隔で収集される前に受動の拡散によって半透膜が出来る神経伝達物質または興味の他の検体プローブの挿入後、分析化学技術を区切るには、一般に利用を識別して異種混合物3のコンポーネントを定量化します。
マイクロダイアリシス興味の事実上すべての検体を測定する使用することができます敏感な手法ですが、時間の分解能は低く、およそ万分1,2分の最大サンプリング レート。高速スキャン サイクリックボルタンメトリー (FSCV)、電気活性種の酸化還元電位に依存する技術の発明は、細胞外液に興味の analyte の瞬時濃度近く解明できます。簡単に言うと (ロビンソンらを参照してください。4広範なレビューのため)、速い時間スケール4三角波ファッションに電圧を上下させる電極を適用します。電圧は、適切な範囲で、目的の化合物が繰り返し酸化して縮小しました。この酸化し削減微小交流電流を作成する電子の動きになります。スキャン レート酸化マイクロ秒単位で発生している化合物の還元とサブ秒スケールの場所を取る。現在の結果からのプローブによって作成された現在の背景を引く、現在プロットの各化合物に固有対の電圧を生成できます 1 つ。電圧振動のタイム スケールが知られているので、これらのデータは、現在のプロットを時間の関数として計算する使用できます。したがって、各酸化で転送された電子の数と還元反応が4を知られている限りは、化合物の相対濃度が決定されるかもしれない。
この化学的特異性と高い時間分解能 FSCV体内の化学成分の濃度変化を検出するための強力な技術を確認します。ただし、これらのマニホールドの利点にもかかわらず技術的なノウハウと高価な機器、セットアップにこのテクニックが必要。さらに、この手法を使用して、nonelectroactive 神経伝達物質 (例えばグルタミン酸) を測定できません。幸いなことに、これらの発明の商品化と同様、電気化学5の分野で技術の進歩は目を覚まし行動中の動物の非ゲルロボットの神経伝達物質を測定する比較的単純なアプローチを導入しています時間精度、テクニックを損なうことがなく酵素バイオ センサー技術として知られています。この手法は、あるゲルロボット過酸化水素応用可能性5 によって生成されたアンペロ メトリック酸化電流として検出される 2 枚の基板に関心の nonelectroactive 神経伝達物質の酵素的変換を使用してください。.市販バイオ センサー プローブ選択的に競争力のある内因性接しないの貢献を減らすことによって興味の検体を測定 (図 1参照)。グルタミン酸、場合共通 interferent アスコルビン酸 (AA) の貢献は競争力のある減測定電流に共同非ゲルロボット AA に変換するセンサーの活性酵素表面に AA オキシダーゼのローカライズdihydroascorbate と水。さらに、酵素層の下に存在負荷電ナフィオン膜は内因性アニオン性化合物を除外します。
この同じバイオ実験のセットアップは、FSCV のようにゲルロボットの神経伝達物質を測定できますが、代わりにそれは固定電位記録6を採用しています。FSCV で、振動電圧とは対照的で固定電位記録電圧は抑えている酸化還元で興味の analyte の潜在的です。このアプローチのターンキーの性質が化学物質の欠如を上回る圧倒的に 1 神経伝達物質に向かって傾斜する脳領域の同じ酸化還元電位、あるかもしれない複数の神経伝達物質として FSCV より少ない化学選択的ですが、特異性。
ほぼリアルタイムでゲルロボットと nonelectroactive の両方の神経伝達物質解放を測定し、特定の行動イベントにリンクする機能では、収束の伝達物質の放出を検討する機会を提供します。この原稿は、目を覚まし行動ハムスターにおける自然な報酬への応答でドーパミンやグルタミン酸の神経伝達を尋問するこのシステムの使用を詳しく説明します。本稿の目的は、性的行動その他の行動および実験パラダイムを調べるため実現の可能性を示すことを目標に、雌ハムスターの中にこの伝達物質の放出を測定するプロセスを詳しく説明することです。
ハムスターが電気化学的録音で使用するための理想的なモデル 歴史的に、ラットとマウスのモデルは、性行動の研究で採用されています。これらの齧歯動物種は耳がぴくぴくを追跡し、最終的にマウント女性7男性を誘惑するホッピング、ダーツなど多数の女性の勧誘行動を含む動的交尾シーケンスに従事します。(膣の浸透の有無にかかわらず) 男性による取付けは続きます、ほんの数秒、アクティブな勧誘行動を再開する前に、数秒間だけ中に女性を彼女の性的行動の姿勢で (前彎と呼ばれる) も行っています。この動作、不動の短い期間と散在している活動の高レベルの構成のパターンは動物の行動の神経伝達を測定する問題です。まず、神経活動とは無関係なアンペロ メトリックの録音で運動の成果物もあります。第二に、歩行が脳の特定領域の特定の神経伝達物質のリリースに関連付けられます。たとえば、ドーパミン放出は、背側と腹側線条体8、の9、マイクロダイアリシス ドーパミン精神刺激を次の測定のための基礎を形作った発見自発運動に結合されて管理10。Mos の女性-典型的な勧誘行動神経伝達の変化を総称して最後だけ性行動の明示的なコンポーネントに帰することは困難、t 齧歯動物の歩行活動の高レベルを含む、10 分性行動テストの大部分によって表されます分です。
女性の性行動の神経化学的プロファイルを分析するには、この演習は、性行動に伴う最小限の自発運動がある種を求めた。ハムスター (ん) の交尾のシーケンスは通常のラット及びマウス11見て勧誘行動の不足のため神経の録音に最適です。結果として、雌ハムスターが入力し、セッション12をテスト 10 分から 9 分の上向きの前弯姿勢を維持します。生体内で女性余分な歩行運動の欠如と男性と性的な相互作用のコンポーネントと関連付けることができる電気化学的録音が得られます。
ハムスター交尾発作 試験室に男性の刺激の動物の紹介の後、男性は最初彼女 (図 2A) をマウントする前に女性の性器調査 (AI) で従事します。マウントする男性に、女性は前弯で彼女は背中のアーチし、取付の男性は彼女の膣への陰茎のアクセスを得ることができますので、彼女の尾を偏向として知られている受容性姿勢を仮定しなければなりません。男性は両方の足 (図 2B) と彼女の後半部を握りしめる女性をマウントし、陰茎あたって (図 2C) を得るために試みに突っ込み始めます。男性は射精を最終的に達成する前に回数を intromit し同様 (挿入) することがなく女性がマウントされます。マウントと射精につながる intromissions のこのシーケンスは、「交尾試合」と呼ばれます。男性は、単一セッション内で複数交尾一続きがあります。

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:329px;">Nembutal</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">Oak Pharmaceuticals Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">76478-501-50</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Pentobarbital sodium injection, USP. This lab uses 8.5mg/100g body weight, injected intraperotineally.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:329px;">Loxicom analgesic&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">Norbrook Laboratories&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">6451603670</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">NSAID antinflammatory and analgesic used for post-operative pain control. Generic: meloxicam.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:329px;">Enroflox antibiotic&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">Norbrook Laboratories&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">5552915411</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Fluoroquinolone antibiotic for post-operative infection prevention. Generic: Enrofloxacin.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:329px;">Beuthanasia-D&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">Merck Animal Health</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">00061047305</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Pentobarbital Sodium, Phenytoin Sodium euthanasia agent.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Bone screws</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>8111-16</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">1/8&#34; bone screw (Pkg. of 16) used to affix skull cap to skull.&#160;</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Dental acrylic (Bosworth Duz-All)</td>
			<td>Bosworth&#160;</td>
			<td>166261C&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Self curing dental acrylic is used in construction of a skull cap to affix cannula and head mount to skull.</td>
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			<td height="63" style="height:63px;">Hardware biosensor setup&#160;</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>8400-K2</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Pinnacle offers complete hardware kits for new users of our tethered biosensor system for rats. Kits include a commutator, preamplifier, and data conditioning and acquisition system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;">Base video computer package</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>9000-K1</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">The base computer package includes a preconfigured computer with ample hard disk storage, a high-definition monitor, a keyboard and mouse, an uninterruptible power supply, and all necessary cables.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;">Video EQ700 EverFocus camera&#160; package</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>&#160;9000-K10&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">EQ700 night vision capable box camera with independent IR source was obtained as part of Pinnacle video computer package. Dome camera (9000-K9) and HD camera (9000-K11) options are also available.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="126">
			<td height="126" style="height:126px;">Sirenia Acquisition software</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>Free--available to download from pinnaclet.com</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Sirenia&#160;Acquisition provides a single platform for recording data from any Pinnacle hardware system. The software features synchronization of all data streams, user-configurable settings, data consolidation, and multiple export options. In addition, the software includes basic review and analysis modules for biosensor recordings. Sirenia&#160;delivers free ll-in-one software that is ideal for data acquisition and review.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="147">
			<td height="147" style="height:147px;">Tethered rat&#160;in vitro&#160;calibration kit</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>7000-K2-T-BAS&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">In order to relate the current changes measured by a biosensor to actual changes in analyte concentration, it is necessary to calibrate the biosensor prior to implantation into the animal. The process also confirms the integrity and selectivity of the sensors.&#160;Calibration kit includes 20 mL jacketed beaker (#7058), 1/2&#34; by 1/8&#34; magnetic stir bar (#7059), right angle clamp (#7056), 2 prong single-adjustment clamp (#7055), 4-channel calibration preamplifer (#7053), and calibration holder (#7051).&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;">Stir plate&#160;</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>6795-410D</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Corning digital Stirrer, 5&#34; x 7&#34;, 120 VAC used to spin magnetic stirrer in jacketed beaker during in vitro calibration of glutamate biosensors.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;">Water bath capable of closed loop circulation</td>
			<td>PolyScience</td>
			<td>8006A11B</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">PolyScience 8006A11B 6L Standard Digital Heated Circulating Bath, 120VAC water bath was used with plastic tubing to heat jacketed beaker to physiological temperature.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Carbon fiber sensor with BASi rat cannulae</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td>7002-CFS</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Carbon fiber electrode used for recording dopamine neurotransmission.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ag/AgCl reference electrode</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td>7065</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Necessary for carbon fiber recordings.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Glutamate biosensors&#160;</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technology, Inc.</td>
			<td>7001&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Enzymatic biosensor probe used for recording glutamatergic neurotransmission.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BASi guide cannulae</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>7030&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Guide cannulae implanted into brain region of interest to guide probe.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">BASi cannula plastic headpiece for rats&#160;</td>
			<td>Pinnacle Technologies, Inc.</td>
			<td>7011&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:504px;">Headmount stabilizes probe and attaches to potentiostat.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measuring in vivo changes in extracellular neurotransmitters during naturally rewarding behaviors in female syrian hamsters

急速な時間スケールでの伝達物質の放出を測定する機能により、特定の動作または操作にリンクする神経伝達のパターン基になる機構と回路の解明で強力なツールです。マイクロダイアリシス法は、脳に興味のほぼすべての検体を測定する何十年も使用されています、この手法時間的解像度に限界があります。また、高速循環ボルタンメトリーは一時的に正確な非常に敏感です。ただし、技術的に困難な本法は興味の analyte の electroactivity に依存しているので、nonelectroactive 物質 (例えば、神経伝達物質グルタミン酸) を検出する可能性がなくなります。固定ポテンシャルをアンペロメトリーと時空間精度ゲルロボットと nonelectroactive の両方の神経伝達物質を測定する酵素バイオ センサーを組み合わせたターンキー システムの使用の詳細を説明します。これらの 2 つの強力な技術の組み合わせ、比較的簡単に強壮剤や一過性の神経伝達の測定により、複数の神経伝達物質の同時録音が可能します。本稿の目的は、ドーパミンやグルタミン酸神経伝達体内表示の究極の目標をハムスターの (すなわち、性行動) 当然のことながらやりがいのある動作を使用して測定のプロセスを示すため、その他の行動および実験パラダイムを調べるためこのアッセイの技術的可能性は。

電気化学および行動コーディング上記手法を使用して、この演習は、性行動の生体内で録音中にドーパミンやグルタミン酸の一過性変動・ トニックを特徴付けるし始めています。この方法論の一時的正確な方法によるより正確に性的行動中の神経伝達を特徴付けることができる我々同様、個々 の交尾行動 (例えばあたって、射精) の女性の受信中に対応?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters at JoVE.com

Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters

自然やりがいのある行動の中にドーパミンやグルタミン酸高時間分解能のリリースを測定する炭素繊維電極と酵素バイオ センサー技術を使用して固定電位電流記録の使用の詳細を説明しますメスのハムスター。

当然やりがい雌ハムスターの行動中に細胞外の神経伝達物質の生体内変化を測定

The ability to measure neurotransmitter release on a rapid time scale allows patterns of neurotransmission to be linked to specific behaviors or ...

measuring-vivo-changes-extracellular-neurotransmitters-during

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Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters

Biopsychology

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10.1K ビュー.  University of Minnesota. 自然やりがいのある行動の中にドーパミンやグルタミン酸高時間分解能のリリースを測定する炭素繊維電極と酵素バイオ センサー技術を使用して固定電位電流記録の使用の詳細を説明しますメスのハムスター。

ビデオ: Measuring In Vivo Changes in Extracellular Neurotransmitters During Naturally Rewarding Behaviors in Female Syrian Hamsters

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural connectivity form during development. In mice, retinofugal projections are arranged in a topographic manner and form eye-specific layers in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (dLGN) of the thalamus and the Superior Colliculus (SC). The development of these precise patterns of retinofugal projections has typically been studied by labeling populations of RGCs with fluorescent dyes and tracers, such as horseradish peroxidase1-4. However, these methods are too coarse to provide insight into developmental changes in individual RGC axonal arbor morphology that are the basis of retinotopic map formation. They also do not allow for the genetic manipulation of RGCs.
Recently, electroporation has become an effective method for providing precise spatial and temporal control for delivery of charged molecules into the retina5-11. Current retinal electroporation protocols do not allow for genetic manipulation and tracing of retinofugal projections of a single or small cluster of RGCs in postnatal mice. It has been argued that postnatal in vivo electroporation is not a viable method for transfecting RGCs since the labeling efficiency is extremely low and hence requires targeting at embryonic ages when RGC progenitors are undergoing differentiation and proliferation6. 
In this video we describe an in vivo electroporation protocol for targeted delivery of genes, shRNA, and fluorescent dextrans to murine RGCs postnatally. This technique provides a cost effective, fast and relatively easy platform for efficient screening of candidate genes involved in several aspects of neural development including axon retraction, branching, lamination, regeneration and synapse formation at various stages of circuit development. In summary we describe here a valuable tool which will provide further insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying sensory map development.

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

We demonstrate an in vivo electroporation protocol for transfecting single or small clusters of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and other retinal cell types in postnatal mice over a wide range of ages. The ability to label and genetically manipulate postnatal RGCs in vivo is a powerful tool for developmental studies.

によるマウス網膜神経節細胞のトランスフェクション in vivoでエレクトロポレーション

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural ...

神経科学

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron is damaged by injury or disease, it may regenerate. Cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the ability of a neuron to regenerate and restore function. Recently, the nematode C. elegans has emerged as an excellent model organism to identify genes and signaling pathways that influence the regeneration of neurons1-6. The main way to initiate neuronal regeneration in C. elegans is laser-mediated cutting, or axotomy. During axotomy, a fluorescently-labeled neuronal process is severed using high-energy pulses. Initially, neuronal regeneration in C. elegans was examined using an amplified femtosecond laser5. However, subsequent regeneration studies have shown that a conventional pulsed laser can be used to accurately sever neurons in vivo and elicit a similar regenerative response1,3,7.
We present a protocol for performing in vivo laser axotomy in the worm using a MicroPoint pulsed laser, a turnkey system that is readily available and that has been widely used for targeted cell ablation. We describe aligning the laser, mounting the worms, cutting specific neurons, and assessing subsequent regeneration. The system provides the ability to cut large numbers of neurons in multiple worms during one experiment. Thus, laser axotomy as described herein is an efficient system for initiating and analyzing the process of regeneration.

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

A protocol to cut neurons in C. elegans with a MicroPoint pulsed laser is presented. We describe setting up the system, immobilizing worms, and severing labeled neurons. Advantages include a relatively low-cost system and the ability to sever neuronal processes or ablate cells in vivo.

Cの生体レーザー軸索切断にエレガンス

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron ...

Retrograde Fluorescent Labeling Allows for Targeted Extracellular Single-unit Recording from Identified Neurons In vivo

The overall goal of this method is to record single-unit responses from an identified population of neurons. In vivo electrophysiological recordings from individual neurons are critical for understanding how neural circuits function under natural conditions. Traditionally, these recordings have been performed 'blind', meaning the identity of the recorded cell is unknown at the start of the recording. Cellular identity can be subsequently determined via intracellular1, juxtacellular2 or loose-patch3 iontophoresis of dye, but these recordings cannot be pre-targeted to specific neurons in regions with functionally heterogeneous cell types. Fluorescent proteins can be expressed in a cell-type specific manner permitting visually-guided single-cell electrophysiology4-6. However, there are many model systems for which these genetic tools are not available. Even in genetically accessible model systems, the desired promoter may be unknown or genetically homogenous neurons may have varying projection patterns. Similarly, viral vectors have been used to label specific subgroups of projection neurons7, but use of this method is limited by toxicity and lack of trans-synaptic specificity. Thus, additional techniques that offer specific pre-visualization to record from identified single neurons in vivo are needed. Pre-visualization of the target neuron is particularly useful for challenging recording conditions, for which classical single-cell recordings are often prohibitively difficult8-11. The novel technique described in this paper uses retrograde transport of a fluorescent dye applied using tungsten needles to rapidly and selectively label a specific subset of cells within a particular brain region based on their unique axonal projections, thereby providing a visual cue to obtain targeted electrophysiological recordings from identified neurons in an intact circuit within a vertebrate CNS.
The most significant novel advancement of our method is the use of fluorescent labeling to target specific cell types in a non-genetically accessible model system. Weakly electric fish are an excellent model system for studying neural circuits in awake, behaving animals12. We utilized this technique to study sensory processing by "small cells" in the anterior exterolateral nucleus (ELa) of weakly electric mormyrid fish. "Small cells" are hypothesized to be time comparator neurons important for detecting submillisecond differences in the arrival times of presynaptic spikes13. However, anatomical features such as dense myelin, engulfing synapses, and small cell bodies have made it extremely difficult to record from these cells using traditional methods11, 14. Here we demonstrate that our novel method selectively labels these cells in 28% of preparations, allowing for reliable, robust recordings and characterization of responses to electrosensory stimulation.

Retrograde Fluorescent Labeling Allows for Targeted Extracellular Single-unit Recording from Identified Neurons In vivo

Retrograde transport of fluorescent dye labels a sub-population of neurons based on anatomical projection. Labeled axons can be visually targeted in vivo, permitting extracellular recording from identified axons. This technique facilitates recording when neurons cannot be labeled through genetic manipulation or are difficult to isolate using 'blind' in vivo approaches.

逆行性蛍光標識は、特定された神経細胞から標的細胞外シングルユニット記録を可能にします<em生体内で&gt;</em

The overall goal of this method is to record single-unit responses from an identified population of neurons. In vivo electrophysiological recordings from ...

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

超音波血液脳関門の破壊とマンガン増強MRIを用いた脳機能イメージングの試み

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

Dual Electrophysiological Recordings of Synaptically-evoked Astroglial and Neuronal Responses in Acute Hippocampal Slices

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs through activation of their ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors, and process information in part through activity-dependent release of gliotransmitters. Furthermore, astrocytes constitute the main uptake system for glutamate, contribute to potassium spatial buffering, as well as to GABA clearance. These cells therefore constantly monitor synaptic activity, and are thereby sensitive indicators for alterations in synaptically-released glutamate, GABA and extracellular potassium levels. Additionally, alterations in astroglial uptake activity or buffering capacity can have severe effects on neuronal functions, and might be overlooked when characterizing physiopathological situations or knockout mice. Dual recording of neuronal and astroglial activities is therefore an important method to study alterations in synaptic strength associated to concomitant changes in astroglial uptake and buffering capacities. Here we describe how to prepare hippocampal slices, how to identify stratum radiatum astrocytes, and how to record simultaneously neuronal and astroglial electrophysiological responses. Furthermore, we describe how to isolate pharmacologically the synaptically-evoked astroglial currents.

The preparation of acute brain slices from isolated hippocampi, as well as the simultaneous electrophysiological recordings of astrocytes and neurons in stratum radiatum during stimulation of schaffer collaterals is described. The pharmacological isolation of astroglial potassium and glutamate transporter currents is demonstrated.

急性海馬スライスにおけるシナプス誘発アストログリアとニューロン活動の二重の電気生理学的記録

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs ...

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging Of Experience-dependent Molecular Changes In Cortical Neurons

The brain's ability to change in response to experience is essential for healthy brain function, and abnormalities in this process contribute to a variety of brain disorders1,2. To better understand the mechanisms by which brain circuits react to an animal's experience requires the ability to monitor the experience-dependent molecular changes in a given set of neurons, over a prolonged period of time, in the live animal. While experience and associated neural activity is known to trigger gene expression changes in neurons1,2, most of the methods to detect such changes do not allow repeated observation of the same neurons over multiple days or do not have sufficient resolution to observe individual neurons3,4. Here, we describe a method that combines in vivo two-photon microscopy with a genetically encoded fluorescent reporter to track experience-dependent gene expression changes in individual cortical neurons over the course of day-to-day experience. 
One of the well-established experience-dependent genes is Activity-regulated cytoskeletal associated protein (Arc)5,6. The transcription of Arc is rapidly and highly induced by intensified neuronal activity3, and its protein product regulates the endocytosis of glutamate receptors and long-term synaptic plasticity7. The expression of Arc has been widely used as a molecular marker to map neuronal circuits involved in specific behaviors3. In most of those studies, Arc expression was detected by in situ hybridization or immunohistochemistry in fixed brain sections. Although those methods revealed that the expression of Arc was localized to a subset of excitatory neurons after behavioral experience, how the cellular patterns of Arc expression might change with multiple episodes of repeated or distinctive experiences over days was not investigated. 
In vivo two-photon microscopy offers a powerful way to examine experience-dependent cellular changes in the living brain8,9. To enable the examination of Arc expression in live neurons by two-photon microscopy, we previously generated a knock-in mouse line in which a GFP reporter is placed under the control of the endogenous Arc promoter10. This protocol describes the surgical preparations and imaging procedures for tracking experience-dependent Arc-GFP expression patterns in neuronal ensembles in the live animal. In this method, chronic cranial windows were first implanted in Arc-GFP mice over the cortical regions of interest. Those animals were then repeatedly imaged by two-photon microscopy after desired behavioral paradigms over the course of several days. This method may be generally applicable to animals carrying other fluorescent reporters of experience-dependent molecular changes4.

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging Of Experience-dependent Molecular Changes In Cortical Neurons

Experience-dependent molecular changes in neurons are essential for the brain's ability to adapt in response to behavioral challenges. An in vivo two-photon imaging method is described here that allows the tracking of such molecular changes in individual cortical neurons through genetically encoded reporters.

皮質ニューロンにおける経験依存性分子の変化の in vivo二光子イメージングにおける

The brain's ability to change in response to experience is essential for healthy brain function, and abnormalities in this process contribute to a variety ...

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first neural circuit in the AOS pathway, called the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), plays an important role in establishing sex-typical behaviors such as territorial aggression and mating. This small (&#60;1 mm3) circuit possesses the capacity to distinguish unique behavioral states, such as sex, strain, and stress from chemosensory cues in the secretions and excretions of conspecifics. While the compact organization of this system presents unique opportunities for recording from large portions of the circuit simultaneously, investigation of sensory processing in the AOB remains challenging, largely due to its experimentally disadvantageous location in the brain. Here, we demonstrate a multi-stage dissection that removes the intact AOB inside a single hemisphere of the anterior mouse skull, leaving connections to both the peripheral vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs) and local neuronal circuitry intact. The procedure exposes the AOB surface to direct visual inspection, facilitating electrophysiological and optical recordings from AOB circuit elements in the absence of anesthetics. Upon inserting a thin cannula into the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which houses the VSNs, one can directly expose the periphery to social odors and pheromones while recording downstream activity in the AOB. This procedure enables controlled inquiries into AOS information processing, which can shed light on mechanisms linking pheromone exposure to changes in behavior.

Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intact Vomeronasal Organ and Accessory Olfactory Bulb

The mouse accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) has been difficult to study in the context of sensory coding. Here, we demonstrate a dissection that produces an ex vivo preparation in which AOB neurons remain functionally connected to their peripheral inputs, facilitating research into information processing of mouse pheromones and kairomones.

無傷の鋤鼻器官と副嗅球のex vivoでの準備

The mouse accessory olfactory system (AOS) is a specialized sensory pathway for detecting nonvolatile social odors, pheromones, and kairomones. The first ...

A Simple and Inexpensive Method for Determining Cold Sensitivity and Adaptation in Mice

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life. The cold plantar assay allows the objective and inexpensive assessment of cold sensitivity in mice, and can quantify both analgesia and hypersensitivity. Mice are acclimated on a glass plate, and a compressed dry ice pellet is held against the glass surface underneath the hindpaw. The latency to withdrawal from the cooling glass is used as a measure of cold sensitivity.
Cold sensation is also important for survival in regions with seasonal temperature shifts, and in order to maintain sensitivity animals must be able to adjust their thermal response thresholds to match the ambient temperature. The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) also allows the study of adaptation to changes in ambient temperature by testing the cold sensitivity of mice at temperatures ranging from 30 &#176;C to 5 &#176;C. Mice are acclimated as described above, but the glass plate is cooled to the desired starting temperature using aluminum boxes (or aluminum foil packets) filled with hot water, wet ice, or dry ice. The temperature of the plate is measured at the center using a filament T-type thermocouple probe. Once the plate has reached the desired starting temperature, the animals are tested as described above.
This assay allows testing of mice at temperatures ranging from innocuous to noxious. The CPA yields unambiguous and consistent behavioral responses in uninjured mice and can be used to quantify both hypersensitivity and analgesia. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) measures cold responsiveness between 30 &#176;C and 5 &#176;C, and can also measure cold adaptation. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

マウスにおける低温感受性と適応を決定するためのシンプルで安価な方法

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life.  The cold ...

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise from extra-retinal sources. Ex vivo ERG provides an efficient method to dissect the function of retinal cells directly from an intact isolated retina of animals or donor eyes. In addition, ex vivo ERG can be used to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic agents on retina tissue from animals or humans. We show here how commercially available in vivo ERG systems can be used to conduct ex vivo ERG recordings from isolated mouse retinas. We combine the light stimulation, electronic and heating units of a standard in vivo system with custom-designed specimen holder, gravity-controlled perfusion system and electromagnetic noise shielding to record low-noise ex vivo ERG signals simultaneously from two retinas with the acquisition software included in commercial in vivo systems. Further, we demonstrate how to use this method in combination with pharmacological treatments that remove specific ERG components in order to dissect the function of certain retinal cell types.

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

同時<em&gt; ex vivoで</emによる二つの網膜の&gt;機能テスト<em&gt; in vivoで</em&gt;電図システム

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise ...

Utilizing Combined Methodologies to Define the Role of Plasma Membrane Delivery During Axon Branching and Neuronal Morphogenesis

During neural development, growing axons extend to multiple synaptic partners by elaborating axonal branches. Axon branching is promoted by extracellular guidance cues like netrin-1 and results in dramatic increases to the surface area of the axonal plasma membrane. Netrin-1-dependent axon branching likely involves temporal and spatial control of plasma membrane expansion, the components of which are supplied through exocytic vesicle fusion. These fusion events are preceded by formation of SNARE complexes, comprising a v-SNARE, such as VAMP2 (vesicle-associated membrane protein 2), and plasma membrane t-SNAREs, syntaxin-1 and SNAP25 (synaptosomal-associated protein 25). Detailed herein isa multi-pronged approach used to examine the role of SNARE mediated exocytosis in axon branching. The strength of the combined approach is data acquisition at a range of spatial and temporal resolutions, spanning from the dynamics of single vesicle fusion events in individual neurons to SNARE complex formation and axon branching in populations of cultured neurons. This protocol takes advantage of established biochemical approaches to assay levels of endogenous SNARE complexes and Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy of cortical neurons expressing VAMP2 tagged with a pH-sensitive GFP (VAMP2-pHlourin) to identify netrin-1 dependent changes in exocytic activity in individual neurons. To elucidate the timing of netrin-1-dependent branching, time-lapse differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy of single neurons over the order of hours is utilized. Fixed cell immunofluorescence paired with botulinum neurotoxins that cleave SNARE machinery and block exocytosis demonstrates that netrin-1 dependent axon branching requires SNARE-mediated exocytic activity.

Light microscopy techniques coupled with biochemical assays elucidate the involvement of SNARE-mediated exocytosis in netrin-dependent axon branching. This combination of techniques permits identification of molecular mechanisms controlling axon branching and cell shape change.

軸索分岐と神経形態形成中に形質膜配信の役割を定義するために組み合わせる方法論を活用

During neural development, growing axons extend to multiple synaptic partners by elaborating axonal branches. Axon branching is promoted by extracellular ...