The authors are grateful for the assistance of Mrs. Sharon Spana in rodent monitoring, handling and experimentation. PhD funding support has been provided by University of Sydney and Australian Research Centre for Excellence in Vision.

This protocol follows the animal care guidelines of University of Sydney.
1. Making Electrodes
<ol>
	<li>Construct the positive electrode (the one which will contact the cornea) from a short (5 cm) length of platinum wire 1-2 mm in diameter. Fashion it into a loop a few mm in diameter. Connect this loop to a conventional lead, long enough to reach the input stage of your amplifier (see Figure 4).</li>
	<li>Construct the negative electrode (which will go in the animal&#8217;s mouth) using an Ag/AgCl pellet 1-2 mm in diameter, also connected to a convention lead (see Figure 4).</li>
	<li>As a reference electrode (which will go into the animal&#8217;s rump), use a clean hypodermic needle (23 G), also connected to a lead of appropriate length (see Figure 4).</li>
	<li>Ideally, use three-lead cables provided by instrument manufacturers, to connect the three electrodes (positive&#160;&#8594; cornea, negative &#8594; mouth, reference &#8594; rump) to the amplifier.</li>
</ol>
2. Connection and Calibration of Light Stimulus and ERG Set-up
<ol>
	<li>Create (or locate) a small recording laboratory, which can be made dark. Equip with either or both of an over-the-bench light made red or a red head-lamp.</li>
	<li>Use a lux meter to confirm that red light illuminance reaching the rat&#8217;s eye during setup does not exceed 1 lux. 
	Note: A neutral density filter can be used to reduce lamp brightness and the source of lamp light must specifically emit red light. Dark adaption will be compromised if light sources emit lower (visible) wavelengths.</li>
	<li>Seal off all stray light entering the recording laboratory (this often requires persistence with opaque tape) and prepare a neutral density filter (this can be purchased in sheets) large enough to fit over, and so dim, any computer screen you will have in the lab. 
	Note: Stray light and the light of a screen are sufficient to prejudice dark adaptation of the rat eye.</li>
	<li>Connect the amplifier to data acquisition hardware. Connect positive, negative and reference leads to the amplifier. Make sure the computer and the LED Ganzfeld power supply unit are securely connected to a ground source. 
	Note: Some labs have specialised grounding points, connected to a building ground; a water pipe is an effective alternative.</li>
	<li>Calibrate the LED light source with a research-quality radiometer. Fix the meter&#8217;s sensor in the position at which the animal&#8217;s eye will be located during an experiment.</li>
	<li>Program the Ganzfeld LEDs to run a full-field ERG protocol with step-wise increases in flash energy, flash duration, flash repetition and time between flashes, termed interstimuls interval (ISI), settings. For an example full-field protocol see Table 1. 
	Note: The full-field ERG flashes increase from repetitive dim flashes to bright flashes in a step wise fashion. The twin flash program follows on from the full-field protocol and enables isolation of rod and cone responses.</li>
</ol>
3. Day Prior to ERG Experimentation
<ol>
	<li>Dark adapt Sprague-Dawley rats for 12 hr before recording. It is convenient to do this in the recording laboratory, once stray light has been eliminated.</li>
</ol>
4. Day of ERG Experimentation
<ol>
	<li>Arrange for the animal to be gently heated while recording. We use a light metal platform built so that the animal&#8217;s head can rest at the correct point at the entry to the Ganzfeld. The platform has inbuilt tubing through which we pump water preheated to 40 &#176;C in a water bath. 
	Note: Experience shows that this keeps the animal&#8217;s core temperature at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Weigh the rat under dark conditions. Record weight and make up correct ketamine (60 mg/kg) and xylazine (5 mg/kg) dose. Restrain the rat gently and inject anaesthetic intraperitoneally.</li>
	<li>Note time of injection. Once the animal is unconscious (usually within 5 min) check depth of anaesthesia by lightly pinching one foot pad, to see if a reflex response is present. It is best to wait until this reflex is absent or weak, before proceeding.</li>
	<li>Apply a single drop of atropine and another of proxmethacaine to cornea.</li>
	<li>Cut a 10 cm length of black thread. Make a loop with a simple knot and slip the loop over the equator of the eye. Tighten it slightly; the effect is to draw the eyeball slightly forward, with minimal pressure. This keeps the cornea clear from the eyelids.</li>
	<li>Apply carbomer eye drops to the cornea surface. Ensure carbomer remains on corneal surface and does not spill onto the eyelids or the face.</li>
	<li>Place absorbent bedding on top of heated platform.</li>
	<li>Position rat on the bedding, with the head in the recommended place in the opening of the Ganzfeld.</li>
	<li>Insert internal temperature probe into the rectum. Secure temperature probe in position by taping probe cord to the tail.</li>
	<li>Insert the reference electrode (the 23 G needle) subcutaneously into the rear leg, and connect to amplifier.</li>
	<li>Place the negative electrode (the Ag/AgCl pellet) securely in the mouth. To prevent this slipping out the mouth, affix the connecting lead to a stable surface.</li>
	<li>Position the positive electrode over the centre of the cornea. Using a micromanipulator, ensure that the electrode touches the cornea gently.</li>
	<li>Check body temperature is at 37.0 - 37.5 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Once the animal is properly positioned and electrodes are in place, drape the whole setup (Ganzfeld and animal) with an opaque material (to preserve dark adaptation). We use a soft black cloth.</li>
	<li>In the acquisition software set at a 2 KHz sampling rate with a collection time of 100-1000 msec with 5 msec of pre-collection sampling. Set the band pass filters to 1-1,000 Hz and ensure that sampling is triggered to sample the period of ~250 msec following a flash.</li>
	<li>Check the recording baseline. It should be free of extraneous noise, but show some amplifier noise and a respiratory oscillation.</li>
	<li>If the baseline shows extraneous noise, begin troubleshooting. Most problems are related to slippage in electrode position, or grounding. Use a faraday cage to ensure recordings are free of extraneous noise.</li>
	<li>Run a test flash, 0.4 log scot cd.s.m-2. An ERG waveform similar to Figure 2A should appear. In our laboratory typical responses for a 0.4 log scot cd.s.m-2 flash are (a-wave: -474 &#177; 39 &#181;V and b-wave: 1,512 &#177; 160 &#181;V, n = 11).</li>
	<li>Allow animal to dark re-adapt for 10 min. It is convenient to use these 10 min to recheck the baseline.</li>
	<li>Following confirmation of stable signal begin recording.</li>
	<li>At the end of the recording session, check that body temperature was maintained. Remove electrodes. Reapply carbomer polymer to corneas. Allow the animal to recover on a heat pad until it is fully mobile and active, before returning to animal housing.</li>
</ol>
5. Remote Ischemia
<ol>
	<li>Perform remote ischemia in either awake or anesthetised rodents.</li>
	<li>If the animal is anaesthetised, lay it on a heated platform (above) and slip the sphygmomanometer cuff over the upper part of the hind-limb, clear of the knee.</li>
	<li>If the animals are used to being handled, it is possible to perform this procedure without anaesthesia; this requires two people. One person restrains the animal gently and the second applies the sphygmomanometer cuff and operates the sphygmomanometer.</li>
	<li>For awake animals, use a piece of towel ~15 cm x 30-50 cm to gently wrap the animal, with one hindlimb free. Lay the animal on its back on (say) the left forearm, with its head tucked between the holder&#8217;s arm and torso, and place the cuff as just described.</li>
	<li>Deflate the cuff and ensure the air pressure valve is closed. Pump the cuff to 160 mmHg in anesthetised animals, and to 180 mmHg in awake animals. This exceeds systolic pressure (usually 140 mmHg and 160 mmHg respectively).</li>
	<li>Maintain these pressures as required, using the hand-held pump.</li>
	<li>After the planned time for ischemia (we use 2 periods of 5 min separated by 5 min reperfusion), deflate the cuff pressure by loosening the air pressure valve.</li>
	<li>Confirm the effect of remote ischemia with a skin temperature probe attached to the footpad. Skin temperature typically falls from 32-30 &#176;C, over 5 min and recovers on reperfusion.</li>
</ol>
6. Light Damage
<ol>
	<li>Ensure that rats are in a dark-adapted overnight, before the light damage procedure.</li>
	<li>At the appropriate time following limb ischemia (in our experiments without delay), each animal is placed singly into a plexiglass boxes, with water and food in floor-based containers. 
	Note: Light-induced damage can only be undertaken in albino animals.</li>
	<li>Switch on a pre-calibrated 1,000 lux white light at a standard time (usually 9 am) and maintain this condition for 24 hr.</li>
</ol>
7. ERG Data Extraction and Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Acquire averaged wave forms of the ERG. If required, correct for a non-zero baseline, by subtraction.</li>
	<li>Measure the amplitude of the a-wave (presented at mid- to high stimulus intensities), as the voltage difference between the baseline and the first (&#60;30 msec latency) trough (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Measure the b-wave amplitude as the voltage difference between the peak of the a-wave and the positive of the following wave, typically occurring at a latency of 80-100 msec (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Isolate oscillatory potentials by using a Fourier transform to filter data from 60-235 Hz, with a 90 Hz transition band7. If required the isolated oscillatory potential signal can then be subtracted from the unfiltered waveform to confirm the identity of the a-wave trough.</li>
	<li>The implicit time (latency) of the a- and b-wave peaks can also be a useful measure (Figure 1). Use the twin flashes to isolate the rod response. Subtract the cone response (flash 2) from the mixed response (flash 1) to isolate the rod response (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Normalize individual light intensity a-wave and b-wave amplitudes (post-treatment/post-treatment-baseline) or averaged for treatment groups. Intensity-response curves plot the group amplitudes and error against flash energy.</li>
</ol>

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Jonathan Stone is the director of CSCM Pty Ltd

The dark-adapted flash ERG method described above is a reliable method for assessing retinal function in rats. Both the a-wave and b-wave were reduced by light damage. Remote ischemic preconditioning mitigated light damage-induced reductions in the a-wave and b-wave. This preservation of retinal function suggests that remote ischemic preconditioning has induced neuroprotection, resembling other forms of protective preconditioning such as hypoxia, ischemia and exercise8-10. The ERG signal recorded is determined...

The ERG is an electrical potential generated by the retina in response to light, and recorded from the corneal surface of the eye. When conditions of recording are managed carefully, the ERG can be used in a variety of ways to assess retinal function. Here we described how to record the &#8216;flash ERG&#8217;, the potential generated when the retina is exposed to a brief, bright flash presented in a Ganzfeld background. The Ganzfeld disperses the light homogenously and the flash of light reaches the whole retina approximately uniformly. If the retina is dark adapted before recording, and the dark-adaptation is maintained as the animal is prepared for recording, the ERG obtained is generated by both rod and cone photoreceptors.
The dark-adapted flash ERG has a characteristic waveform, which has been analysed in two ways. First, early and late components of the ERG waveform have been distinguished, and related to the sequence of neuronal activation in the retina. The earliest component is a short-latency negative-going potential, the a-wave (Figure 1). This is followed by a positive-going potential, called the b-wave. The rising phase of the b-wave shows oscillations, which are considered a separate component (oscillatory potentials or OPs). The a-wave is considered to be generated by photoreceptors, the b-wave by cells of the inner nuclear layer, and the OPs by amacrine cells1.
Based on the stimulus strength, responses to very dim flashes termed the scotopic threshold response are possible. The scotopic threshold response is understood to be generated from the retinal ganglion cells2-4. Second, the flash ERG can be separated by light adaptation, or by a two flash protocol described below, into rod- and cone-driven components. Under photopic conditions, the a-wave is not detectable in rats, because the cone population is low, but OPs and a b-wave are clear5. In primates, whose retinas have higher cone populations, both rod- and cone- pathways generate a detectable a-wave6.
Two useful measures often extracted from the flash ERG are the amplitudes of the a- and b-waves, measured as in Figure 1, with typical flash responses shown in Figure 2. When the photoreceptor population is reduced, for example by exposure to damagingly bright light, all components of the ERG are reduced. Neuroprotective interventions, such as remote ischemic preconditioning (RIP), can be validated by the preservation of the amplitudes of the a- and b-waves (Figure 3). In summary, the analysis of the ERG enables comparisons between healthy, light damaged and neuroprotected retina.

<table><tbody><tr><td>PC computer</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Powerlab, 4 channel acquistion hardware</td><td>AD Instruments</td><td>PL 35044</td><td>Acquistion of ERG</td></tr><tr><td>Animal Bio Amp</td><td>AD Instruments</td><td>FE 136</td><td>Amplifier for ERG</td></tr><tr><td>Lab chart</td><td>AD Instruments</td><td></td><td>Signal collection software</td></tr><tr><td>Ganzfield</td><td>Photometric solutions</td><td>FS-250A</td><td>Light stimulus</td></tr><tr><td>Ganzfield operating system</td><td>Photometric solutions</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Research Radiometer</td><td>International light technologies</td><td>ILT-1700</td><td>calibrate light series</td></tr><tr><td>Lux meter</td><td></td><td>LX-1010B</td><td>check red light illumanation</td></tr><tr><td>Excel</td><td>Microsoft</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lead wires</td><td>AD Instruments</td><td></td><td>Connect postive, negative ground electrodes to amplifier</td></tr><tr><td>Lead wires - alligator</td><td>AD Instruments</td><td></td><td>ground ganzfield and acquistion hardware to computer</td></tr><tr><td>Platinum wire 95%</td><td>A&amp;amp;E metals</td><td></td><td>postive electrode</td></tr><tr><td>Mouth electrode Ag/AgCl Pellet</td><td>SDR</td><td>E205</td><td>negative electode</td></tr><tr><td>26 G needle</td><td>BD</td><td></td><td>ground electode</td></tr><tr><td>Water pump</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Water bath</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tubing</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Homeothermic blanket system with flexible probe</td><td>Harvard Appartus</td><td>507222F</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Atropine 1% w/v</td><td>Bausch &amp;amp; Lomb</td><td></td><td>topical mydriasis</td></tr><tr><td>Proxmethycaine 0.5% w/v</td><td>Bausch &amp;amp; Lomb</td><td></td><td>topical anaesthetic</td></tr><tr><td>Visco tears eye drops</td><td>Novartis</td><td></td><td>carbomer polymer</td></tr><tr><td>Thread</td><td></td><td></td><td>retract eye lid</td></tr><tr><td>Tweezers</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reusable adhesive</td><td>Blu tac</td><td></td><td>Dim red headlamp. Affix electrodes</td></tr><tr><td>Absorbent bedding</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ketamil - ketamine 100 mg/ml - 50 ml</td><td>Troy Laboratories Pty Ltd</td><td></td><td>dissociative</td></tr><tr><td>Xylium - Xylazine 100 mg/ml - 50 ml</td><td>Troy Laboratories Pty Ltd</td><td></td><td>muscle relaxant</td></tr><tr><td>Scale</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

using the electroretinogram to assess function in the rodent retina and the protective effects of remote limb ischemic preconditioning

The ERG is the sum of all retinal activity. The ERG is usually recorded from the cornea, which acts as an antenna that collects and sums signals from the retina. The ERG is a sensitive measure of changes in retinal function that are pan-retinal, but is less effective for detecting damage confined to a small area of retina. In the present work we describe how to record the &#8216;flash&#8217; ERG, which is the potential generated when the retina is exposed to a brief light flash. We describe methods of anaesthesia, mydriasis and corneal management during recording; how to keep the retina dark adapted; electrode materials and placement; the range and calibration of stimulus energy; recording parameters and the extraction of data. We also describe a method of inducing ischemia in one limb, and how to use the ERG to assess the effects of this remote-from-the-retina ischemia on retinal function after light damage. A two-flash protocol is described which allows isolation of the cone-driven component of the dark-adapted ERG, and thereby the separation of the rod and cone components. Because it can be recorded with techniques that are minimally invasive, the ERG has been widely used in studies of the physiology, pharmacology and toxicology of the retina. We describe one example of this usefulness, in which the ERG is used to assess the function of the light-damaged retina, with and without a neuroprotective intervention; preconditioning by remote ischemia.

The protocol can be used to measure visual function of rodent retina in vivo. The a-wave, a measure of photoreceptor function, and the b-wave, a measure of inner retina function, are annotated in Figure 1.
The rod-dominated ERG signal increases with the increasing light stimulus, as shown in Figure 2A. The a-wave becomes apparent at ~0.4 log scot cd.s.m-2 and the amplitude of the a-wave increases until saturation at 2.5 log scot cd.s.m...

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Using the Electroretinogram to Assess Function in the Rodent Retina and the Protective Effects of Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning

The electroretinogram (ERG) is an electrical potential generated by the retina in response to light. This paper describes how to use the ERG to assess retinal function, in dark-adapted rats, and how it can be can be used to assess a neuroprotective intervention, in the present case remote ischemic preconditioning.

The ERG is the sum of all retinal activity. The ERG is usually recorded from the cornea, which acts as an antenna that collects and sums signals from the ...

using-electroretinogram-to-assess-function-rodent-retina-protective

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

16.1K Views.  University of Sydney. The electroretinogram (ERG) is an electrical potential generated by the retina in response to light. This paper describes how to use the ERG to assess retinal function, in dark-adapted rats, and how it can be can be used to assess a neuroprotective intervention, in the present case remote ischemic preconditioning.

Video: Using the Electroretinogram to Assess Function in the Rodent Retina and the Protective Effects of Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning

Implantation and Recording of Wireless Electroretinogram and Visual Evoked Potential in Conscious Rats

The full-field electroretinogram (ERG) and visual evoked potential (VEP) are useful tools to assess retinal and visual pathway integrity in both laboratory and clinical settings. Currently, preclinical ERG and VEP measurements are performed with anesthesia to ensure stable electrode placements. However, the very presence of anesthesia has been shown to contaminate normal physiological responses. To overcome these anesthesia confounds, we develop a novel platform to assay ERG and VEP in conscious rats. Electrodes are surgically implanted sub-conjunctivally on the eye to assay the ERG and epidurally over the visual cortex to measure the VEP. A range of amplitude and sensitivity/timing parameters are assayed for both the ERG and VEP at increasing luminous energies. The ERG and VEP signals are shown to be stable and repeatable for at least 4 weeks post surgical implantation. This ability to record ERG and VEP signals without anesthesia confounds in the preclinical setting should provide superior translation to clinical data.

We show surgical implantation and Recording procedures to measure visual electrophysiological signals from the eye (electroretinogram) and brain (visual evoked potential) in conscious rats, which is more analogous to the human condition where recordings are conducted without anesthesia confounds.

The full-field electroretinogram (ERG) and visual evoked potential (VEP) are useful tools to assess retinal and visual pathway integrity in both ...

Behavior

Assessment of Vascular Regeneration in the CNS Using the Mouse Retina

The rodent retina is perhaps the most accessible mammalian system in which to investigate neurovascular interplay within the central nervous system (CNS). It is increasingly being recognized that several neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer&#8217;s, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis present elements of vascular compromise. In addition, the most prominent causes of blindness in pediatric and working age populations (retinopathy of prematurity and diabetic retinopathy, respectively) are characterized by vascular degeneration and failure of physiological vascular regrowth. The aim of this technical paper is to provide a detailed protocol to study CNS vascular regeneration in the retina. The method can be employed to elucidate molecular mechanisms that lead to failure of vascular growth after ischemic injury. In addition, potential therapeutic modalities to accelerate and restore healthy vascular plexuses can be explored. Findings obtained using the described approach may provide therapeutic avenues for ischemic retinopathies such as that of diabetes or prematurity and possibly benefit other vascular disorders of the CNS.

The rodent retina has long been recognized as an accessible window to the brain. In this technical paper we provide a protocol that employs the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy to study the mechanisms that lead to failure of vascular regeneration within the central nervous system after ischemic injury. The described system can also be harnessed to explore strategies to promote regrowth of functional blood vessels within the retina and CNS.

The rodent retina is perhaps the most accessible mammalian system in which to investigate neurovascular interplay within the central nervous system (CNS). ...

Direct-Coupled Electroretinogram (DC-ERG) for Recording the Light-Evoked Electrical Responses of the Mouse Retinal Pigment Epithelium

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a specialized monolayer of cells strategically located between the retina and the choriocapillaris that maintain the overall health and structural integrity of the photoreceptors. The RPE is polarized, exhibiting apically and basally located receptors or channels, and performs vectoral transport of water, ions, metabolites, and secretes several cytokines.
In vivo noninvasive measurements of RPE function can be made using direct-coupled ERGs (DC-ERGs). The methodology behind the DC-ERG was pioneered by Marmorstein, Peachey, and colleagues using a custom-built stimulation recording system and later demonstrated using a commercially available system. The DC-ERG technique uses glass capillaries filled with Hank&#8217;s buffered salt solution (HBSS) to measure the slower electrical responses of the RPE elicited from light-evoked concentration changes in the subretinal space due to photoreceptor activity. The prolonged light stimulus and length of the DC-ERG recording make it vulnerable to drift and noise resulting in a low yield of useable recordings. Here, we present a fast, reliable method for improving the stability of the recordings while reducing noise by using vacuum pressure to reduce/eliminate bubbles that result from outgassing of the HBSS and electrode holder. Additionally, power line artifacts are attenuated using a voltage regulator/power conditioner. We include the necessary light stimulation protocols for a commercially available ERG system as well as scripts for analysis of the DC-ERG components: c-wave, fast oscillation, light peak, and off response. Due to the improved ease of recordings and rapid analysis workflow, this simplified protocol is particularly useful in measuring age-related changes in RPE function, disease progression, and in the assessment of pharmacological intervention.

Direct-Coupled Electroretinogram DC-ERG for Recording the Light-Evoked Electrical Responses of the Mouse Retinal Pigment Epithelium

Here, we present a method for recording light-evoked electrical responses of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) in mice using a technique known as DC-ERGs first described by Marmorstein, Peachey, and colleagues in the early 2000s.

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a specialized monolayer of cells strategically located between the retina and the choriocapillaris that maintain ...

Chemistry

Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning:  A Neuroprotective Technique in Rodents

Sublethal ischemia protects tissues against subsequent, more severe ischemia through the upregulation of endogenous mechanisms in the affected tissue. Sublethal ischemia has also been shown to upregulate protective mechanisms in remote tissues. A brief period of ischemia (5-10 min) in the hind limb of mammals induces self-protective responses in the brain, lung, heart and retina. The effect is known as remote ischemic preconditioning (RIP). It is a therapeutically promising way of protecting vital organs, and is already under clinical trials for heart and brain injuries. This publication demonstrates a controlled, minimally invasive method of making a limb &#8211; specifically the hind limb of a rat &#8211; ischemic. A blood pressure cuff developed for use in human neonates is connected to a manual sphygmomanometer and used to apply 160 mmHg pressure around the upper part of the hind limb. A probe designed to detect skin temperature is used to verify the ischemia, by recording the drop in skin temperature caused by pressure-induced occlusion of the leg arteries, and the rise in temperature which follows release of the cuff. This method of RIP affords protection to the rat retina against bright light-induced damage and degeneration.

Remote ischemic preconditioning (RIP) is a method of conditioning tissues against damaging stress. We have established a method of remote ischemia at the hind limb, by inflating a sphygmomanometer cuff for 5-10 min. The neuroprotective capabilities of RIP have been demonstrated in a model of retinal degeneration in rodents.

Sublethal ischemia protects tissues against subsequent, more severe ischemia through the upregulation of endogenous mechanisms in the affected tissue. ...

Medicine

Glutamate and Hypoxia as a Stress Model for the Isolated Perfused Vertebrate Retina

Neuroprotection has been a strong field of investigation in ophthalmological research in the past decades and affects diseases such as glaucoma, retinal vascular occlusion, retinal detachment, and diabetic retinopathy. It was the object of this study to introduce a standardized stress model for future preclinical therapeutic testing.
Bovine retinas were prepared and perfused with an oxygen saturated standard solution, and the ERG was recorded. After recording stable b-waves, hypoxia (pure N2) or glutamate stress (250 &#181;m glutamate) was exerted for 45 min. To investigate the effects on photoreceptor function alone, 1 mM aspartate was added to obtain a-waves. ERG-recovery was monitored for 75 min.
For hypoxia, a decrease in a-wave amplitude of 87.0% was noted (p &#60;0.01) after an exposition time of 45 min (decrease of 36.5% after the end of the washout p = 0.03). Additionally, an initial decrease in b-wave amplitudes of 87.23% was recorded, that reached statistical significance (p &#60;0.01, decrease of 25.5% at the end of the washout, p = 0.03).
For 250 &#181;m glutamate, an initial 7.8% reduction of a-wave amplitudes (p &#62;0.05) followed by a reduction of 1.9% (p &#62;0.05). A reduction of 83.7% of b-wave amplitudes (p &#60;0.01) was noted; after a washout of 75 min the reduction was 2.3% (p = 0.62). In this study, a standardized stress model is presented that may be useful to identify possible neuroprotective effects in the future.

With this study, we introduce a standardized stress model for the isolated superfused bovine retina for future preclinical therapeutic testing. The effect of either hypoxia (pure N2) or glutamate stress (250 &#181;M glutamate) on retinal function represented by a- and b-wave amplitudes was evaluated.

Neuroprotection has been a strong field of investigation in ophthalmological research in the past decades and affects diseases such as glaucoma, retinal ...

Simultaneous Recording of Electroretinography and Visual Evoked Potentials in Anesthetized Rats

The electroretinogram (ERG) and visual evoked potential (VEP) are commonly used to assess the integrity of the visual pathway. The ERG measures the electrical responses of the retina to light stimulation, while the VEP measures the corresponding functional integrity of the visual pathways from the retina to the primary visual cortex following the same light event. The ERG waveform can be broken down into components that reflect responses from different retinal neuronal and glial cell classes. The early components of the VEP waveform represent the integrity of the optic nerve and higher cortical centers. These recordings can be conducted in isolation or together, depending on the application. The methodology described in this paper allows simultaneous assessment of retinal and cortical visual evoked electrophysiology from both eyes and both hemispheres. This is a useful way to more comprehensively assess retinal function and the upstream effects that changes in retinal function can have on visual evoked cortical function.

This protocol describes simultaneous measurement of electroretinogram and visual evoked potentials in anesthetized rats.

The electroretinogram (ERG) and visual evoked potential (VEP) are commonly used to assess the integrity of the visual pathway. The ERG measures the ...

A Mouse Model of Retinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Through Elevation of Intraocular Pressure

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a pathophysiological process contributing to cellular damage in multiple ocular conditions, including glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and retinal vascular occlusions. Rodent models of I/R injury are providing significant insights into mechanisms and treatment strategies for human I/R injury, especially with regard to neurodegenerative damage in the retinal neurovascular unit. Presented here is a protocol for inducing retinal I/R injury in mice through elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP). In this protocol, the ocular anterior chamber is cannulated with a needle, through which flows the drip of an elevated saline reservoir. Using this drip to raise IOP above systolic arterial blood pressure, a practitioner temporarily halts inner retinal blood flow (ischemia). When circulation is reinstated (reperfusion) by removal of the cannula, severe cellular damage ensues, resulting ultimately in retinal neurodegeneration. Recent studies demonstrate inflammation, vascular permeability, and capillary degeneration as additional elements of this model. Compared to alternative retinal I/R methodologies, such as retinal arterial ligation, retinal I/R injury by elevated IOP offers advantages in its&#160;anatomical specificity, experimental tractability, and technical accessibility, presenting itself as a valuable tool for examining neuronal pathogenesis and therapy in the retinal neurovascular unit.

This article describes a procedure for inducing retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by elevated intraocular pressure in mice. Retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury by elevated intraocular pressure serves to model human pathologies characterized by compromised oxygen and nutrient delivery in the retina, enabling researchers to examine potential cellular mechanisms and treatments for human diseases of the retinal neurovascular unit.

Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) is a pathophysiological process contributing to cellular damage in multiple ocular conditions, including glaucoma, ...

Optimizing the Setup and Conditions for Ex Vivo Electroretinogram to Study Retina Function in Small and Large Eyes

Measurements of retinal neuronal light responses are critical to investigating the physiology of the healthy retina, determining pathological changes in retinal diseases, and testing therapeutic interventions. The ex vivo electroretinogram (ERG) allows the quantification of contributions from individual cell types in the isolated retina by addition of specific pharmacological agents and evaluation of tissue-intrinsic changes independently of systemic influences. Retinal light responses can be measured using a specialized ex vivo ERG specimen holder and recording setup, modified from existing patch clamp or microelectrode array equipment. Particularly, the study of ON-bipolar cells, but also of photoreceptors, has been hampered by the slow but progressive decline of light responses in the ex vivo ERG over time. Increased perfusion speed and adjustment of the perfusate temperature improve ex vivo retinal function and maximize response amplitude and stability. The ex vivo ERG uniquely allows the study of individual retinal neuronal cell types. In addition, improvements to maximize response amplitudes and stability allow the investigation of light responses in retina samples from large animals, as well as human donor eyes, making the ex vivo ERG a valuable addition to the repertoire of techniques used to investigate retinal function.

Optimizing the Setup and Conditions for Ex Vivo Electroretinogram to Study Retina Function in Small and Large Eyes

Modification of existing multielectrode array or patch clamp equipment makes the ex vivo electroretinogram more widely accessible. Improved methods to record and maintain ex vivo light responses facilitate the study of photoreceptor and ON-bipolar cell function in the healthy retina, animal models of eye diseases, and human donor retinas.

Measurements of retinal neuronal light responses are critical to investigating the physiology of the healthy retina, determining pathological changes in ...

A Murine Model of Ischemic Retinal Injury Induced by Transient Bilateral Common Carotid Artery Occlusion

Diverse vascular diseases such as diabetic retinopathy, occlusion of retinal veins or arteries and ocular ischemic syndrome can lead to retinal ischemia. To investigate pathological mechanisms of retinal ischemia, relevant experimental models need to be developed. Anatomically, a main retinal blood supplying vessel is the ophthalmic artery (OpA) and OpA originates from the internal carotid artery of the common carotid artery (CCA). Thus, disruption of CCA could effectively cause retinal ischemia. Here, we established a mouse model of retinal ischemia by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (tBCCAO) to tie the right CCA with 6-0 silk sutures and to occlude the left CCA transiently for 2 seconds via a clamp, and showed that tBCCAO could induce acute retinal ischemia leading to retinal dysfunction. The current method reduces reliance on surgical instruments by only using surgical needles and a clamp, shortens occlusion time to minimize unexpected animal death, which is often seen in mouse models of middle cerebral artery occlusion, and maintains reproducibility of common retinal ischemic findings. The model can be utilized to investigate the pathophysiology of ischemic retinopathies in mice and further can be used for in vivo drug screening.

Here, we describe a mouse model of retinal ischemia by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion using simple sutures and a clamp. This model can be useful for understanding the pathological mechanisms of retinal ischemia caused by cardiovascular abnormalities.

Diverse vascular diseases such as diabetic retinopathy, occlusion of retinal veins or arteries and ocular ischemic syndrome can lead to retinal ischemia. ...

Mouse Model for Retinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury to Study Retinal Pathologies

Induction of Retinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in a Mouse Eye Model

Ischemia-reperfusion injuries are known to cause a range of retinal pathologies, including diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, retinal vascular occlusions, and other vaso-occlusive conditions. This manuscript presents a method for inducing ischemia-reperfusion injury in a mouse model. The method utilized anterior chamber cannulation attached to a saline reservoir, generating hydrostatic pressure to raise the intraocular pressure to 90-100 mmHg. This method effectively caused constriction of retinal capillaries to induce retinal ischemia. At the end of the ischemic period (60 min), the intraocular pressure was normalized (&#8804;20 mmHg) before removing the cannula from the anterior chamber to initiate reperfusion. Days after the ischemia/reperfusion procedure, the eyes were collected and sectioned for histological staining. The histopathology of the retinal sections was scored by evaluating eight parameters of retinal injury: folds, hemorrhage, deformation, cell loss in the ganglion cell, inner nuclear, outer nuclear, and photoreceptor layers, and damage to retinal pigment epithelial cells. This method provided a reproducible model to study the mechanisms and pathology of retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury. In addition, this model can facilitate the discovery of potential therapeutic targets to treat retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury, advancing the study of retinal pathologies and improving patient outcomes.

This protocol models retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury in a mouse eye by inducing retinal ischemia via anterior chamber cannulation and intraocular pressure elevation, followed by intraocular pressure normalization to initiate the reperfusion.

Ischemia-reperfusion injuries are known to cause a range of retinal pathologies, including diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, retinal vascular occlusions, ...

Using the Electroretinogram to Assess Function in the Rodent Retina and the Protective Effects of Remote Limb Ischemic Preconditioning

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