This research was supported in part by a National Research Service Award (T32GM07616) from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences.

1. Experimental Setup and Sample Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Fabricate microtoroids using the lithography, etching, and melting procedure as described previously6. Fabricate microtoroids on top of a silicon wafer (chip) that typically have a major diameter of 80-100 &#181;m, and a minor diameter of 2 &#181;m.</li>
	<li>Unwind roughly a meter of single-mode optical fiber (125 &#181;m cladding, 4.3 &#181;m mode field diameter) from its fiber spool.</li>
	<li>In the middle of the unwound portion of the optical fiber, strip a small segment (2.5 cm) of the polymer coating around the optical fiber using wire strippers. Note: This is the portion of the optical fiber that will be used to evanescently couple light into the microtoroid.</li>
	<li>Clean the stripped fiber with isopropanol alcohol and a lint free wipe.</li>
	<li>Hold this portion of the fiber in place using a fiber holder made of magnetic clamps.</li>
	<li>Thin the stripped fiber to ~500 nm by melting and pulling using a hydrogen torch and two stepper motors moving in opposite directions at 60 &#181;m/min. Position the optical fiber inside the top portion of the flame, which should be ~10 mm tall. Stop pulling the fiber when the transmission through the fiber stops fluctuating, which can be monitored either visually (by watching the light that is scattered laterally from the fiber blink on and off) or by connecting the fiber to a photodiode which is attached to an oscilloscope.</li>
	<li>Cleave one end of the optical fiber and insert it into a bare fiber adaptor. Place this end of the fiber into the input of the photoreceiver.</li>
	<li>Fiber couple the other end of the fiber spool to the laser by using a fiber optic coupler.</li>
	<li>Place the microtoroid chip on top of a sample holder (stainless steel, 37.8 mm x 6.4 mm x 3.2 mm) using either epoxy or double sided tape.</li>
	<li>Mount the sample holder on top of a positioning stage that comprises of a 3-axis nano-positioning (nanocube) stage (see equipment list) on top of a 3-axis micrometer. Perform all experiments on a pneumatically isolated optical table to minimize vibrations.</li>
	<li>Coarse position the sample chip using the 3-axis micrometer.</li>
	<li>Align the microtoroid-containing chip parallel to the optical fiber using the nano-positioner. Note: Align the microtoroid within a distance of one wavelength of the input light (~633 nm). For visualization of this process use two imaging columns (tube with objective lens and camera, see equipment list) positioned on the top and on the side of the chip.</li>
	<li>Optimize the polarization of the laser light directed through the optical fiber using an in-line polarization controller (see equipment list) with a knob to adjust the polarization. Note: Optimum polarization is achieved when the measured dip in the transmission of the optical fiber appears the narrowest. Observe this dip on an oscilloscope (see step 2.2 for more details).</li>
	<li>Construct a sample chamber by epoxying a glass coverslip over the sample stage using a glass microscope slide as a spacer. Note: A Plexiglas enclosure covering the entire setup may be useful for minimizing air currents. A small opening should be left to allow for the solution to be pumped in using tubing.</li>
	<li>Thermally equilibrate particle suspensions or single-molecule aqueous solutions for &#8805; 1 hr in a RT water bath (~500 ml). Note: Samples are diluted to the desired concentration in microcentrifuge tubes using the associated buffers specified from the manufacturer, e.g., PBS or HEPES. If no binding events are detected, increase the salt concentration of the buffer.</li>
	<li>Vortex particle containing solutions (1 ml) briefly for ~2 sec.</li>
	<li>Inject particle containing solutions into the sample chamber at 1 ml/min using a 1 ml syringe pump.</li>
	<li>After the sample chamber has filled, turn off the syringe pump.</li>
	<li>Wait 30 sec before recording data to minimize the effects of mechanical vibrations resulting from fluid flow that can affect the measurement.</li>
</ol>
2. Frequency Locking
<ol>
	<li>Re-couple the toroid to the optical fiber by moving the sample holder with the nanopositioner, because the coupling will be disturbed due to the injection of fluid.</li>
	<li>Locate the resonance wavelength of the microtoroid by scanning the computer-controlled input laser through a variety of wavelengths. Perform this step by sending a triangular waveform voltage signal to a piezoelectric element within the laser controller that regulates the wavelength of the laser. Perform experiments using visible light (635 nm &#177; 2.5 nm) as there is low absorption of light in water at this wavelength.</li>
	<li>Measure the light transmission through the optical fiber by plugging the output of the optical fiber into an auto-balanced photoreceiver. Plug the output of the photoreceiver into an oscilloscope using a BNC cable. Observe on the oscilloscope that at the resonance wavelength of the microtoroid, transmission through the optical fiber drops.</li>
	<li>Attach the output of the photoreceiver to the main input of the frequency locking feedback controller (see equipment list) via a cable.</li>
	<li>Run the frequency locking feedback controller in autolock mode using top-of-peak locking with a dither frequency of 2 kHz and an amplitude of wavelength oscillation of 19 fm. Empirically set the proportional-integral-derivative settings in the software window using Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules14. Note: These values need only be set once at the beginning of all experiments.</li>
	<li>Auto-lock the wavelength of the laser to the resonance wavelength of the microtoroid. Perform this step after filling the sample chamber. Note: If the wavelength shift is too large, then the feedback controller will lose lock and automatically switch to scanning mode in order to locate the resonance wavelength location. This occurs for wavelength shifts larger than approximately one linewidth (at least 600 fm for all systems investigated here).</li>
	<li>Record the output of the feedback controller at 20 kHz using a 24-bit data acquisition card. Export the data as a text file via data acquisition software.</li>
</ol>
3. Data Processing &#38; Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Fourier transform the data in MATLAB.</li>
	<li>Low pass the data using a &#34;brick-wall&#34; filter with a cutoff at 1 kHz to remove the imposed dither frequency of 2 kHz (see Supplemental Code File Screenshot 1).</li>
	<li>Computationally notch filter the data using a window size of 16 Hz. Note: This is done to remove known sources of noise, in this case, 60 Hz electronic line noise and its harmonics, as well 100 Hz (coming from the laser driver) and its harmonics (see Supplemental Code File Screenshot 1).</li>
	<li>Inverse Fourier transform the data back into the time domain.</li>
	<li>Median filter the data using a window size of 1,001 samples (see Supplemental Code File Screenshot 2).</li>
	<li>Locate step changes in the resonance wavelength using the step-finding algorithm of Kerssemakers et al.15.</li>
	<li>Generate histograms of the amplitude of each binding step.</li>
	<li>Calculate particle size using Eq. (1) (see Discussion).</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Lu, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+sensitivity+nanoparticle+detection+using+optical+microcavities.">High sensitivity nanoparticle detection using optical microcavities.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 108, 5976-5979 (2011).</li><li>Su, J., Goldberg, A. F. G., Stoltz, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Label-free+detection+of+single+nanoparticles+and+biological+molecules+using+microtoroid+optical+resonators.">Label-free detection of single nanoparticles and biological molecules using microtoroid optical resonators.</a> Light: Science and Applications. , (2016).</li><li>Knight, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Single molecule biology. , (2009).</li><li>Jonsson, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Real-time+biospecific+interaction+analysis+using+surface+plasmon+resonance+and+a+sensor+chip+technology.">Real-time biospecific interaction analysis using surface plasmon resonance and a sensor chip technology.</a> BioTechniques. 11, 620-627 (1991).</li><li>Vollmer, F., Arnold, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whispering-gallery-mode+biosensing:+label-free+detection+down+to+single+molecules.">Whispering-gallery-mode biosensing: label-free detection down to single molecules.</a> Nat. Methods. 5, 591-596 (2008).</li><li>Armani, D. K., Kippenberg, T. J., Spillane, S. M., Vahala, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultra-high-Q+toroid+microcavity+on+a+chip.">Ultra-high-Q toroid microcavity on a chip.</a> Nature. 421, 925-928 (2003).</li><li>Vahala, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+microcavities.">Optical microcavities.</a> Nature. 424, 839-846 (2003).</li><li>Arnold, S., Khoshsima, M., Teraoka, I., Holler, S., Vollmer, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shift+of+whispering-gallery+modes+in+microspheres+by+protein+adsorption.">Shift of whispering-gallery modes in microspheres by protein adsorption.</a> Opt. Lett. 28, 272-274 (2003).</li><li>Vollmer, F., Arnold, S., Keng, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single+virus+detection+from+the+reactive+shift+of+a+whispering-gallery+mode.">Single virus detection from the reactive shift of a whispering-gallery mode.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 105, 20701-20704 (2008).</li><li>He, L., Ozdemir, S. K., Zhu, J., Kim, W., Yang, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detecting+single+viruses+and+nanoparticles+using+whispering+gallery+microlasers.">Detecting single viruses and nanoparticles using whispering gallery microlasers.</a> Nat Nano. 6, 428-432 (2011).</li><li>Dantham, V. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Label-free+detection+of+single+protein+using+a+nanoplasmonic-photonic+hybrid+microcavity.">Label-free detection of single protein using a nanoplasmonic-photonic hybrid microcavity.</a> Nano Lett. 13, 3347-3351 (2013).</li><li>Baaske, M. D., Foreman, M. R., Vollmer, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+nucleic+acid+interactions+monitored+on+a+label-free+microcavity+biosensor+platform.">Single-molecule nucleic acid interactions monitored on a label-free microcavity biosensor platform.</a> Nat Nanotechnol. 9, 933-939 (2014).</li><li>Su, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Label-Free+Single+Exosome+Detection+Using+Frequency-Locked+Microtoroid+Optical+Resonators.">Label-Free Single Exosome Detection Using Frequency-Locked Microtoroid Optical Resonators.</a> ACS Photonics. (9), 1241-1245 (2015).</li><li>&#197;str&#246;m, K. J., Murray, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Feedback systems : an introduction for scientists and engineers. , (2008).</li><li>Kerssemakers, J. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assembly+dynamics+of+microtubules+at+molecular+resolution.">Assembly dynamics of microtubules at molecular resolution.</a> Nature. 442, 709-712 (2006).</li><li>Su, T. -. T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Label-free detection of single biological molecules using microtoroid optical resonators. , (2014).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

As a particle binds, the resonance wavelength (&#955;) of the toroid increases. If a particle unbinds, the resonance wavelength correspondingly decreases (a step-down event). The particle diameter (d) may be determined through histograms of the amplitude of each wavelength step. The height of each wavelength step varies due to size variations of the bound particle and due to the location on the microtoroid where the particle binds. The maximum change in resonance wavelength (step height) occurs when par...

Single molecule detection experiments are useful for reducing the amount of analyte used in biosensors, for early detection of disease, and for examining the fundamental properties of molecules3. Such experiments are typically performed using labels, however, labels are not always possible to obtain for a particular protein, increase cost, can perturb the events being studied, and can be inconvenient, particularly for real time on-site experiments or point-of-care diagnostics.
The current gold standard for label-free biosensing is surface plasmon resonance4, however the commercial surface plasmon resonance systems typically have a typical lower limit of detection on the order of nM. Recently, optical resonators have emerged as a promising technology for label-free single molecule biodetection5. Optical resonators work based on the long-term (ns) confinement of light6,7. Light is evanescently coupled into these devices typically via an optical fiber. When the wavelength of the light going through the fiber matches the resonance wavelength of the resonator, light efficiently couples to the resonator. This coupled light totally internally reflects within the resonator&#39;s cavity generating an evanescent field in the vicinity of the circumference of the resonator. As particles enter the evanescent field and bind to the resonator, the resonance wavelength of the resonator changes in proportion to the volume of the particle8.
In terms of detection capability, microsphere resonators have earlier been used to detect single influenza A virus particles (100 nm)9,10. Recently, plasmonically-enhanced microsphere optical resonators have been used to detect single bovine serum albumin molecules11 and 8-mer oligonucleotides12, however this approach limits the particle capture area to 0.3 &#181;m2 per device. Larger capture area biosensors are ideal for maximizing the chance of particle detection. Current solution-based label-free biosensing technologies with large (&#62; 100 &#181;m2) capture areas have been limited to detecting polystyrene particles &#8805; 25 nm.
We have developed a label-free biosensing system based on optical resonator technology known as Frequency Locking Optical Whispering Evanescent Resonator (FLOWER)13 (Figure 1) that is capable of time-resolved detection of single molecules in solution. FLOWER uses the long photon lifetime of microtoroid optical resonators combined with frequency locking feedback control, balanced detection, and computational filtering to detect small particles down to single protein molecules. The use of frequency locking allows the system to always track the shifting resonance of the microtoroid as particles bind, without the need to sweep or scan the laser wavelength over large ranges. The principles of FLOWER may be used to enhance the detection capabilities of other techniques including plasmonic enhancement. In what follows, the procedures for performing FLOWER are described.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Tunable diode laser</td><td>Newport</td><td>TLB-6300</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Laser controller</td><td>Newport</td><td>TLB-6300-LN</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Frequency locking feedback controller</td><td>Toptica Photonics</td><td>Digilock 110</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Auto-balanced photoreceiver</td><td>Newport</td><td>Model 2007</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>In-line polarization controller</td><td>General Photonics</td><td>PLC-003-S-90</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>24-bit data acquisition card</td><td>National Instruments</td><td>NI-PCI-4461</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Recombinant human interleukin-2</td><td>Pierce Biotechnology</td><td>R201520</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20 nm polystyrene beads</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>3020A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NanoCube XYZ Piezo Stage</td><td>Physik Instrumente</td><td>P-611.3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Optical table</td><td>Newport</td><td>VH3660W-OPT</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Objective lens for imaging column</td><td>Navitar Machine Vision</td><td>1-60228</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Imaging column (adaptor tube)</td><td>Navitar Machine Vision</td><td>1-60228</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>High-Res CCD camera for imaging column</td><td>Edmund Industrial Optics</td><td>NT39244</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

label-free single molecule detection using microtoroid optical resonators

Detecting small concentrations of molecules down to the single molecule limit has impact on areas such as early detection of disease, and fundamental studies on the behavior of molecules. Single molecule detection techniques commonly utilize labels such as fluorescent tags or quantum dots, however, labels are not always available, increase cost and complexity, and can perturb the events being studied. Optical resonators have emerged as a promising means to detect single molecules without the use of labels. Currently the smallest particle detected by a non-plasmonically-enhanced bare optical resonator system in solution is a 25 nm polystyrene sphere1. We have developed a technique known as Frequency Locking Optical Whispering Evanescent Resonator (FLOWER) that can surpass this limit and achieve label-free single molecule detection in aqueous solution2. As signal strength scales with particle volume, our work represents a &#62; 100x improvement in the signal to noise ratio (SNR) over the current state of the art. Here the procedures behind FLOWER are presented in an effort to increase its usage in the field.

Particle binding events are clearly seen as step-like changes in the resonance wavelength of the microtoroid over time (Figure 2A). The heights of these steps are shown as a histogram in Figure 2B. Figures 2-4 show representative traces from the binding of exosomes (nanovesicles), 5 nm silica beads, and single human interleukin-2 molecules, respectively. The fact that the step-like events scale with particle size shows that the technique has been performed correctly. Thi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Label-free Single Molecule Detection Using Microtoroid Optical Resonators at JoVE.com

Label-free Single Molecule Detection Using Microtoroid Optical Resonators

We have developed a label-free biosensing system based on optical resonator technology known as Frequency Locking Optical Whispering Evanescent Resonator (FLOWER) that is capable of detecting single molecules in solution. Here the procedures behind this work are described and presented.

Detecting small concentrations of molecules down to the single molecule limit has impact on areas such as early detection of disease, and fundamental ...

label-free-single-molecule-detection-using-microtoroid-optical

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

9.2K Views.  California Institute of Technology. We have developed a label-free biosensing system based on optical resonator technology known as Frequency Locking Optical Whispering Evanescent Resonator (FLOWER) that is capable of detecting single molecules in solution. Here the procedures behind this work are described and presented. 

Video: Label-free Single Molecule Detection Using Microtoroid Optical Resonators

Fabrication of Silica Ultra High Quality Factor Microresonators

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the quality factor (Q) of the cavity, can be in excess of 500ns for cavities with Q factors above 100 million. As a result of their low material losses, silica microcavities have demonstrated some of the longest photon lifetimes to date1-2. Since a portion of the circulating light extends outside the resonator, these devices can also be used to probe the surroundings. This interaction has enabled numerous experiments in biology, such as single molecule biodetection and antibody-antigen kinetics, as well as discoveries in other fields, such as development of ultra-low-threshold microlasers, characterization of thin films, and cavity quantum electrodynamics studies.3-7
The two primary silica resonant cavity geometries are the microsphere and the microtoroid. Both devices rely on a carbon dioxide laser reflow step to achieve their ultra-high-Q factors (Q&gt;100 million).1-2,8-9 However, there are several notable differences between the two structures. Silica microspheres are free-standing, supported by a single optical fiber, whereas silica microtoroids can be fabricated on a silicon wafer in large arrays using a combination of lithography and etching steps. These differences influence which device is optimal for a given experiment.
Here, we present detailed fabrication protocols for both types of resonant cavities. While the fabrication of microsphere resonant cavities is fairly straightforward, the fabrication of microtoroid resonant cavities requires additional specialized equipment and facilities (cleanroom). Therefore, this additional requirement may also influence which device is selected for a given experiment.
Introduction
An optical resonator efficiently confines light at specific wavelengths, known as the resonant wavelengths of the device. 1-2 The common figure of merit for these optical resonators is the quality factor or Q. This term describes the photon lifetime (&tau;o) within the resonator, which is directly related to the resonator's optical losses. Therefore, an optical resonator with a high Q factor has low optical losses, long photon lifetimes, and very low photon decay rates (1/&tau;o). As a result of the long photon lifetimes, it is possible to build-up extremely large circulating optical field intensities in these devices. This very unique property has allowed these devices to be used as laser sources and integrated biosensors.10
A unique sub-class of resonators is the whispering gallery mode optical microcavity. In these devices, the light is confined in circular orbits at the periphery. Therefore, the field is not completely confined within the device, but evanesces into the environment. Whispering gallery mode optical cavities have demonstrated some of the highest quality factors of any optical resonant cavity to date.9,11 Therefore, these devices are used throughout science and engineering, including in fundamental physics studies and in telecommunications as well as in biodetection experiments. 3-7,12
Optical microcavities can be fabricated from a wide range of materials and in a wide variety of geometries. A few examples include silica and silicon microtoroids, silicon, silicon nitride, and silica microdisks, micropillars, and silica and polymer microrings.13-17 The range in quality factor (Q) varies as dramatically as the geometry. Although both geometry and high Q are important considerations in any field, in many applications, there is far greater leverage in boosting device performance through Q enhancement. Among the numerous options detailed previously, the silica microsphere and the silica microtoroid resonator have achieved some of the highest Q factors to date.1,9 Additionally, as a result of the extremely low optical loss of silica from the visible through the near-IR, both microspheres and microtoroids are able to maintain their Q factors over a wide range of testing wavelengths.18 Finally, because silica is inherently biocompatible, it is routinely used in biodetection experiments.
In addition to high material absorption, there are several other potential loss mechanisms, including surface roughness, radiation loss, and contamination loss.2 Through an optimization of the device size, it is possible to eliminate radiation losses, which arise from poor optical field confinement within the device. Similarly, by storing a device in an appropriately clean environment, contamination of the surface can be minimized. Therefore, in addition to material loss, surface scattering is the primary loss mechanism of concern.2,8
In silica devices, surface scattering is minimized by using a laser reflow technique, which melts the silica through surface tension induced reflow. While spherical optical resonators have been studied for many years, it is only with recent advances in fabrication technologies that researchers been able to fabricate high quality silica optical toroidal microresonators (Q&gt;100 million) on a silicon substrate, thus paving the way for integration with microfluidics.1
The present series of protocols details how to fabricate both silica microsphere and microtoroid resonant cavities. While silica microsphere resonant cavities are well-established, microtoroid resonant cavities were only recently invented.1 As many of the fundamental methods used to fabricate the microsphere are also used in the more complex microtoroid fabrication procedure, by including both in a single protocol it will enable researchers to more easily trouble-shoot their experiments.

We describe the use of a carbon dioxide laser reflow technique to fabricate silica resonant cavities, including free-standing microspheres and on-chip microtoroids. The reflow method removes surface imperfections, allowing long photon lifetimes within both devices. The resulting devices have ultra high quality factors, enabling applications ranging from telecommunications to biodetection.

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the ...

Engineering

Optical Trapping of Nanoparticles

Optical trapping is a technique for immobilizing and manipulating small objects in a gentle way using light, and it has been widely applied in trapping and manipulating small biological particles. Ashkin and co-workers first demonstrated optical tweezers using a single focused beam1. The single beam trap can be described accurately using the perturbative gradient force formulation in the case of small Rayleigh regime particles1. In the perturbative regime, the optical power required for trapping a particle scales as the inverse fourth power of the particle size. High optical powers can damage dielectric particles and cause heating. For instance, trapped latex spheres of 109 nm in diameter were destroyed by a 15 mW beam in 25 sec1, which has serious implications for biological matter2,3.
A self-induced back-action (SIBA) optical trapping was proposed to trap 50 nm polystyrene spheres in the non-perturbative regime4. In a non-perturbative regime, even a small particle with little permittivity contrast to the background can influence significantly the ambient electromagnetic field and induce a large optical force. As a particle enters an illuminated aperture, light transmission increases dramatically because of dielectric loading. If the particle attempts to leave the aperture, decreased transmission causes a change in momentum outwards from the hole and, by Newton's Third Law, results in a force on the particle inwards into the hole, trapping the particle. The light transmission can be monitored; hence, the trap can become a sensor. The SIBA trapping technique can be further improved by using a double-nanohole structure.
The double-nanohole structure has been shown to give a strong local field enhancement5,6. Between the two sharp tips of the double-nanohole, a small particle can cause a large change in optical transmission, thereby inducing a large optical force. As a result, smaller nanoparticles can be trapped, such as 12 nm silicate spheres7 and 3.4 nm hydrodynamic radius bovine serum albumin proteins8. In this work, the experimental configuration used for nanoparticle trapping is outlined. First, we detail the assembly of the trapping setup which is based on a Thorlabs Optical Tweezer Kit. Next, we explain the nanofabrication procedure of the double-nanohole in a metal film, the fabrication of the microfluidic chamber and the sample preparation. Finally, we detail the data acquisition procedure and provide typical results for trapping 20 nm polystyrene nanospheres.

The following setup approach details low power optical trapping of dielectric nanoparticles using a double-nanohole in metal film.

Optical trapping is a technique for immobilizing and manipulating small objects in a gentle way using light, and it has been widely applied in trapping ...

Synthesis and Operation of Fluorescent-core Microcavities for Refractometric Sensing

This paper discusses fluorescent core microcavity-based sensors that can operate in a microfluidic analysis setup. These structures are based on the formation of a fluorescent quantum-dot (QD) coating on the channel surface of a conventional microcapillary. Silicon QDs are especially attractive for this application, owing in part to their negligible toxicity compared to the II-VI and II-VI compound QDs, which are legislatively controlled substances in many countries. While the ensemble emission spectrum is broad and featureless, an Si-QD film on the channel wall of a capillary features a set of sharp, narrow peaks in the fluorescence spectrum, corresponding to the electromagnetic resonances for light trapped within the film. The peak wavelength of these resonances is sensitive to the external medium, thus permitting the device to function as a refractometric sensor in which the QDs never come into physical contact with the analyte. The experimental methods associated with the fabrication of the fluorescent-core microcapillaries are discussed in detail, as well as the analysis methods. Finally, a comparison is made between these structures and the more widely investigated liquid-core optical ring resonators, in terms of microfluidic sensing capabilities.

Fluorescent-core microcavity sensors employ a high-index quantum-dot coating in the channel of silica microcapillaries. Changes in the refractive index of fluids pumped into the capillary channel cause shifts in the microcavity fluorescence spectrum that can be used to analyze the channel medium.

This paper discusses  fluorescent core microcavity-based sensors that can operate in a microfluidic  analysis setup. These structures are based on the ...

Implementation of a Reference Interferometer for Nanodetection

A thermally and mechanically stabilized fiber interferometer suited for examining ultra-high quality factor microcavities is fashioned. After assessing its free spectral range (FSR), the module is put in parallel with a fiber taper-microcavity system and then calibrated through isolating and eliminating random shifts in the laser frequency (i.e. laser jitter noise). To realize the taper-microcavity junction and to maximize the optical power that is transferred to the resonator, a single-mode optical fiber waveguide is pulled. Solutions containing polystyrene nanobeads are then prepared and flown to the microcavity in order to demonstrate the system&#8217;s ability to sense binding to the surface of the microcavity. Data is post-processed via adaptive curve fitting, which allows for high-resolution measurements of the quality factor as well as the plotting of time-dependent parameters, such as resonant wavelength and split frequency shifts. By carefully inspecting steps in the time-domain response and shifting in the frequency-domain response, this instrument can quantify discrete binding events.

A reference interferometer technique, which is designed to remove undesirable laser jitter noise for nanodetection, is utilized for probing an ultra-high quality factor microcavity. Instructions for assembly, setup, and data acquisition are provided, alongside the measurement process for specifying the cavity quality factor.

A thermally and mechanically stabilized fiber interferometer suited for examining ultra-high quality factor microcavities is fashioned. After assessing ...

Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including microresonators. However, because of the increased acoustic radiative losses during direct liquid immersion of optomechanical devices, almost all published optomechanical experiments have been performed in solid phase. This paper discusses a recently introduced hollow microfluidic optomechanical resonator. Detailed methodology is provided to fabricate these ultra-high-Q microfluidic resonators, perform optomechanical testing, and measure radiation pressure-driven breathing mode and SBS-driven whispering gallery mode parametric vibrations. By confining liquids inside the capillary resonator, high mechanical- and optical- quality factors are simultaneously maintained.

Parametric optomechanical excitations have recently been experimentally demonstrated in microfluidic optomechanical resonators by means of optical radiation pressure and stimulated Brillouin scattering. This paper describes the fabrication of these microfluidic resonators along with methodologies for generating and verifying optomechanical oscillations.

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including ...

Attaching Biological Probes to Silica Optical Biosensors Using Silane Coupling Agents

In order to interface with biological environments, biosensor platforms, such as the popular Biacore system (based on the Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) technique), make use of various surface modification techniques, that can, for example, prevent surface fouling, tune the hydrophobicity / hydrophilicity of the surface, adapt to a variety of electronic environments, and most frequently, induce specificity towards a target of interest.1-5 These techniques extend the functionality of otherwise highly sensitive biosensors to real-world applications in complex environments, such as blood, urine, and wastewater analysis.2,6-7 While commercial biosensing platforms, such as Biacore, have well-understood, standard techniques for performing such surface modifications, these techniques have not been translated in a standardized fashion to other label-free biosensing platforms, such as Whispering Gallery Mode (WGM) optical resonators.8-9
WGM optical resonators represent a promising technology for performing label-free detection of a wide variety of species at ultra-low concentrations.6,10-12 The high sensitivity of these platforms is a result of their unique geometric optics: WGM optical resonators confine circulating light at specific, integral resonance frequencies.13 Like the SPR platforms, the optical field is not totally confined to the sensor device, but evanesces; this "evanescent tail" can then interact with species in the surrounding environment. This interaction causes the effective refractive index of the optical field to change, resulting in a slight, but detectable, shift in the resonance frequency of the device. Because the optical field circulates, it can interact many times with the environment, resulting in an inherent amplification of the signal, and very high sensitivities to minor changes in the environment.2,14-15
To perform targeted detection in complex environments, these platforms must be paired with a probe molecule (usually one half of a binding pair, e.g. antibodies / antigens) through surface modification.2 Although WGM optical resonators can be fabricated in several geometries from a variety of material systems, the silica microsphere is the most common. These microspheres are generally fabricated on the end of an optical fiber, which provides a "stem" by which the microspheres can be handled during functionalization and detection experiments. Silica surface chemistries may be applied to attach probe molecules to their surfaces; however, traditional techniques generated for planar substrates are often not adequate for these three-dimensional structures, as any changes to the surface of the microspheres (dust, contamination, surface defects, and uneven coatings) can have severe, negative consequences on their detection capabilities. Here, we demonstrate a facile approach for the surface functionalization of silica microsphere WGM optical resonators using silane coupling agents to bridge the inorganic surface and the biological environment, by attaching biotin to the silica surface.8,16 Although we use silica microsphere WGM resonators as the sensor system in this report, the protocols are general and can be used to functionalize the surface of any silica device with biotin.

Biosensors interface with complex, biological environments and perform targeted detection by combining highly sensitive sensors with highly specific probes attached to the sensor via surface modification. Here, we demonstrate the surface functionalization of silica optical sensors with biotin using silane coupling agents to bridge the sensor and the biological environment.

In order to interface with biological environments, biosensor platforms, such as the popular Biacore system (based on the Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) ...

Fabrication and Operation of a Nano-Optical Conveyor Belt

The technique of using focused laser beams to trap and exert forces on small particles has enabled many pivotal discoveries in the nanoscale biological and physical sciences over the past few decades. The progress made in this field invites further study of even smaller systems and at a larger scale, with tools that could be distributed more easily and made more widely available. Unfortunately, the fundamental laws of diffraction limit the minimum size of the focal spot of a laser beam, which makes particles smaller than a half-wavelength in diameter hard to trap and generally prevents an operator from discriminating between particles which are closer together than one half-wavelength. This precludes the optical manipulation of many closely-spaced nanoparticles and&#160;limits the&#160;resolution of optical-mechanical systems. Furthermore, manipulation using focused beams requires beam-forming or steering optics, which can be very bulky and expensive. To address these limitations in the system scalability of conventional optical trapping our lab has devised an alternative technique which utilizes near-field optics to move particles across a chip. Instead of focusing laser beams in the far-field, the optical near field of plasmonic resonators produces the necessary local optical intensity enhancement to overcome the restrictions of diffraction and manipulate particles at higher resolution. Closely-spaced resonators produce strong optical traps which can be addressed to mediate the hand-off of particles from one to the next in a conveyor-belt-like fashion. Here, we describe how to design and produce a conveyor belt using a gold surface patterned with plasmonic C-shaped resonators and how to operate it with polarized laser light to achieve super-resolution nanoparticle manipulation and transport. The nano-optical conveyor belt chip can be produced using lithography techniques and easily packaged and distributed.

The scalability and resolution of conventional optical manipulation techniques are limited by diffraction. We circumvent the diffraction limit and describe a method of optically transporting nanoparticles across a chip using a gold surface patterned with a path of closely spaced C-shaped plasmonic resonators.

The technique of using focused laser beams to trap and exert forces on small particles has enabled many pivotal discoveries in the nanoscale biological ...

Multicolor Fluorescence Detection for Droplet Microfluidics Using Optical Fibers

Fluorescence assays are the most common readouts used in droplet microfluidics due to their bright signals and fast time response. Applications such as multiplex assays, enzyme evolution, and molecular biology enhanced cell sorting require the detection of two or more colors of fluorescence. Standard multicolor detection systems that couple free space lasers to epifluorescence microscopes are bulky, expensive, and difficult to maintain. In this paper, we describe a scheme to perform multicolor detection by exciting discrete regions of a microfluidic channel with lasers coupled to optical fibers. Emitted light is collected by an optical fiber coupled to a single photodetector. Because the excitation occurs at different spatial locations, the identity of emitted light can be encoded as a temporal shift, eliminating the need for more complicated light filtering schemes. The system has been used to detect droplet populations containing four unique combinations of dyes and to detect sub-nanomolar concentrations of fluorescein.

Multicolor fluorescence detection in droplet microfluidics typically involves bulky and complex epifluorescence microscope-based detection systems. Here we describe a compact and modular multicolor detection scheme that utilizes an array of optical fibers to temporally encode multicolor data collected by a single photodetector.

Fluorescence assays are the most common readouts used in droplet microfluidics due to their bright signals and fast time response. Applications such as ...

Use of Dual Optical Tweezers and Microfluidics for Single-Molecule Studies

Visual biochemistry is a powerful technique for observing the stochastic properties of single enzymes or enzyme complexes that are obscured in the averaging that takes place in bulk-phase studies. To achieve visualization, dual optical tweezers, where one trap is fixed and the other is mobile, are focused into one channel of a multi-stream microfluidic chamber positioned on the stage of an inverted fluorescence microscope. The optical tweezers trap single molecules of fluorescently labeled DNA and fluid flow through the chamber and past the trapped beads, stretches the DNA to B-form (under minimal force, i.e., 0 pN) with the nucleic acid being observed as a white string against a black background. DNA molecules are moved from one stream to the next, by translating the stage perpendicular to the flow to enable the initiation of reactions in a controlled manner. To achieve success, microfluidic devices with optically clear channels are mated to glass syringes held in place in a syringe pump. Optimal results use connectors permanently bonded to the flow cell, tubing that is mechanically rigid and chemically resistant, and which is connected to switching valves that eliminate bubbles that prohibit laminar flow.

Visual, single-molecule biochemistry studied through microfluidic chambers is greatly facilitated using glass barrel, gas-tight syringes, stable connections of tubing to flow cells, and elimination of bubbles by placing switching valves between the syringes and tubing. The protocol describes dual optical traps that enable visualization of DNA transactions and intermolecular interactions.

Visual biochemistry is a powerful technique for observing the stochastic properties of single enzymes or enzyme complexes that are obscured in the ...

Biochemistry

Optical Biosensing

Optical biosensors utilize light to detect the binding of a target molecule. These sensors can utilize a label molecule, which produces a measurable signal such as fluorescence,&#160;or these sensors can be label-free&#160;and use the changes in optical properties, such as refractive index, to sense for the binding of the target molecule. This video introduces both label and label-free optical biosensors, demonstrates their use in the laboratory, and shows some applications of the technology.

Types of Optical Biosensing; Surface Plasmon Resonance SPR

Optical biosensors utilize light to detect the binding of a target molecule. These sensors can utilize a label molecule, which produces a measurable signal such as fluorescence, or these sensors can be label-free&#160;and use the changes in optical properties, such as refractive index, to sense for the binding of the target molecule. This video introduces both label and label-free optical biosensors, demonstrates their use in the laboratory, and shows some applications of the technology.

Optical biosensors utilize light to detect the binding of a target molecule. These sensors can utilize a label molecule, which produces a measurable ...

Label-free Single Molecule Detection Using Microtoroid Optical Resonators

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