We thank all members of the experimental animal department of Saitama Medical University. We appreciate Yamaguchi University and Tohoku University for their research support. This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP 16K10106, 17K18648, and 19K08305.

This study protocol was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Saitama Medical University (2476).
1.&#160;Animals
<ol>
	<li>House a pair of parents with their first-time infants of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) who have no experience raising any infants in a light-sealed incubated cage, maintaining constant temperature (25-30 &#176;C), and a 12 h light/dark cycle). Set light intensity per cage at 750-930 lx during the light period and 0 lx during the dark period. Ensure that the parents are healthy with respect to feeding and cleaning. 
	NOTE: The cage was sized according to the Standards relating to the Care and Keeping and Reducing Pain of Laboratory Animals by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment.</li>
</ol>
2.&#160;The diagnosis of underweight and parental infant-rearing abnormality
<ol>
	<li>Refer to the general diagnosis and intervention flows visualized in Figure 1 (A: Infant, B: Mother). When the infant is found to be underweight, choose intervention methods for the infant based on the presence or absence of five infant behaviors (crying, clinging to mother, head control, rooting reflex, sucking) and for the mother based on the presence or absence of five maternal behaviors (the will to feed, breast enlargement, infant&#39;s sucking acceptance, milk secretion, and pain expression). 
	&#8203;NOTE: Take care throughout to not cross-contaminate the animals&#39; scent.</li>
</ol>
3.&#160;Animal characteristics
<ol>
	<li>Gestational age at birth
	<ol>
		<li>Make a note of the common marmoset&#39;s full-term gestation period of approximately 140-150 days. This compares to the human standard full term 17.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Birth and developmental weight
	<ol>
		<li>Age and sex definition
		<ol>
			<li>As a day-old notation, define birthdays as postnatal day 0 (PD 0). Define the sex of the infant by examination of external genitalia.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Identification of congenital malformations or diseases
		<ol>
			<li>Examine the infant to identify any congenital malformations or diseases, paying particular attention to those that might cause feeding difficulties (e.g., cleft palate).</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Body weight measurement
		<ol>
			<li>Weigh the infant daily using a scale with 0.1 g increments to check their feeding volume. Prepare a clean plastic box or bowl lined with soft tissue paper to hold the infant and maintain its body temperature during weighing. Tare the prepared box or bowl on the scale, place the infant in the prepared container, and record the body weight. Weigh daily at approximately the same time to compare with the standard 15,16. 
			NOTE: Measure the weight with precautions to prevent the infant from escaping or being harmed while on the scale.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Body weight gain graph
		<ol>
			<li>Visualize a graph of body weight gain per day. The weight at birth and on the second day is expected to be more than 27 g and to then increase by approximately 1 g per day according to the colony records of neonatal infants&#39; weight required for survival (Figure 2).</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Assessment of milk intake volume
		<ol>
			<li>Assess milk intake volume by weighing the infant both before and after feeding. However, be aware that separating the infant from the parent for weighing may itself cause stress and interfere with nurturing behavior. If normal breastfeeding and growth are expected, reduce weight measurements to once daily for the first week.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Crown, rump, and length measurement (CRL)
		<ol>
			<li>Separate the infant from the parent gently and quickly measure CRL by laying the infant flat in the prone position against a ruler and determining the length from the top of the head to the base of the tail (Supplemental Figure S1). After measurement, immediately return the infant to the parent.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Breastfeeding behavior of the infant
	<ol>
		<li>Confirm that the infant is performing four behavioral patterns (Figure 1A).
		<ol>
			<li>Determine whether the infant is clinging to the mother&#39;s body sufficiently.</li>
			<li>Observe whether the infant&#39;s head is bent forward to the mother&#39;s body by its own whole body muscle tension.</li>
			<li>Note whether the infant explores and reaches the mother&#39;s nipple by itself as a human sucking &#34;rooting&#34; reflex with some parental help.</li>
			<li>Vocalizing a phee call11,12 loudly when separated from its parents.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Mother&#39;s breastfeeding behavior and function
	<ol>
		<li>Confirm these behavior patterns and functions in the mother (Figure 1B).
		<ol>
			<li>Confirm the mother&#39;s cooperative acceptance of the newborn for breastfeeding.</li>
			<li>Confirm that when the mother&#39;s breast becomes taut, the mother encourages the infant to suckle, and then the breast becomes less taut and the teat protrudes.</li>
			<li>Support the mother&#39;s breastmilk secretion by pressing the breast side with the fingers (Figure 3A). Check that the breast tension is not too hard and is without engorgement. 
			NOTE: Wear soft and thick cowhide gloves to prevent the mother from biting and hold the mother using the nondominant hand.</li>
			<li>Observe the mother&#39;s expression and look for signs of pain, such as tears in her eyes and her upper and lower teeth closed and exposed, which may be the cause of her refusal of the infant&#39;s suckling.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Father&#39;s parenting behavior
	<ol>
		<li>Observe the father&#39;s parenting behavior. Observe whether the father is carrying the infant excessively, so much that it interferes with the mother&#39;s breastfeeding adequately and thus disrupts nursing. The father&#39;s assistance to carry the infants is usually limited.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Intervention targeting both the mother and infant to reestablish spontaneous breastfeeding
	<ol>
		<li>When an underweight infant ( less than 27 g ) is found, observe the family relationship and search for any abnormal parental infant-rearing behavior. Potential parental abnormal behaviors pose a high risk of harming the infant or interfering with feeding (abuse) or abandonment of feeding (neglect).</li>
		<li>When the infant is too weak to explore or cling to the mother and initiate nursing by itself, separate it from the mother and give it a minimal amount of formula (e.g., 0.5 mL of Lebens Haihai, Wakodo at two-thirds concentration) by oral syringe, as needed based on body weight (Figure 1A,B).</li>
		<li>As the first intervention step aimed at the mother, soften the hardened nipple area by pressing and massaging in three steps from the areola base toward the nipple between fingers to open the milk duct (Figure 3B). Exude milk slightly from the teat for the odor to encourage the infant to explore.</li>
		<li>Next, hold the mother&#39;s body softly and lay the infant near the mother&#39;s breast to encourage it to search for the mother&#39;s nipple (Figure 1C). Guide the mother to raise her arms to improve nipple access for the infant. After the infant finds the nipple, continue the breast massage to assist with milk secretion. Confirm that the mother&#39;s breast is relieved of pressure, likely relieving the pain and the teat is protruding.</li>
		<li>During the intervention, provide occasional handling and build rapport with the family.</li>
		<li>Repeat this intervention one or more times per day until the mother voluntarily allows feeding and the infant learns to suck spontaneously. When the infant&#39;s feeding is inhibited by the father, remove the father from the family until the infant&#39;s development improves.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare no conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise.

Parental care of infants in diverse species requires mutual physiological and psychological considerations7,9,10,12,13,14,18,19,20,21,22,<sup...

The perinatal and neonatal periods are often stressful for parents. This is a particular problem in countries like Japan, where direct exposure to child rearing is limited given the countries&#39; low birthrate, aging population, and tendency to live in nuclear families. This situation is exacerbated by a lack of institutionally supported education regarding child rearing1. Against the background of this limited experience and the social problems associated with poverty, for instance, in younger couples, there is a high risk of postnatal growth failure related to breastfeeding issues in the presence of stress-related abuse and neglect by parents2.
The establishment of breastfeeding by mothers separated from their infants after delivery is crucial for attachment formation and &#34;the comparison between breastfeeding and formula feeding shows that the former has an effect on the development of rich emotions in newborns,&#34; suggesting a strong causal relationship between breastfeeding and attachment formation3. However, to improve early breastfeeding success and postnatal growth and development if there are medical problems in the infant or mother, it is often necessary to separate the infant from the mother to allow appropriate nutritional management of the newborn. Following the stabilization of the newborn, mothers must be provided guidance and support to successfully establish breastfeeding. Fathers, intimate partners, and other support individuals should be included in this instruction to learn how to nurture their child and provide appropriate support for breastfeeding4. Most of the available literature (e.g., &#34;Environment and Nursing Intervention from Immediately After Delivery to Establishment of Breastfeeding&#34;) focuses mainly on interventions and support for mothers5. It is expected to be better taught to midwifery and nursing students&#39; awareness and specific intervention skills to support breastfeeding that involves both the parents and child and that encourages interaction between the two.
Previously, we developed the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) as a small nonhuman primate model to explore the psychobiological basis of perinatal and neonatal interventions6. We designed a system that uses social scene-dependent changes7,8,9 and biomolecular activities10,11,12 to quantitatively identify developmental changes in the control of sensory (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory) perception in different environments. Using principal component analysis (PCA), we were able to extract multiple explanatory behavioral factors, which allowed us to reproduce the complex neural network responsible for social psychological function in these animals. The results of this Behavior Output analysis for Quantitative Emotional state Translation (BOUQUET) method suggested that social interaction between adult males and females could be visualized quantitatively based on familiarity-dependent features in the same evaluation system11. We hypothesized that differences in common marmoset behavior reflect each individual&#39;s psychocognitive learning in the past.
In this study, we compared animals in three conditions: siblings in a social environment where children interacted with each other, a single child that only experienced social interactions with their parent, and a situation similar to human foster care in which young were separated from any genetic family members. The BOUQUET analysis revealed quantitative differences in the time course of social response behavior development between groups, indicating that familial interactions (i.e., parents and siblings) during development influence the formation of social psychological functions13. In addition, we analyzed psychosocial development from postnatal day 15 to day 45 in marmosets using continuous infrared imaging in a situation replicating foster care in which formula was provided by the research staff. Data, including body surface temperatures, activity, and location preference, suggested the existence of unique age-dependent patterns. Further analysis indicated that experience during initial feeding periods may have significantly influenced behavioral rhythms after 1 month of development14. Circadian rhythms and their disruption are known to be closely related to mental functions that are required for human adaptability to an increasingly complex society, and their formation is influenced by early childhood experiences.
This report follows previous findings11,13,14&#160;to explore the feasibility of intervening in a case of breastfeeding failure in a common marmoset family displaying abuse-like behavior by the father and neglect-like behavior by the mother. While marmosets generally produce multizygotic multiples and are known for their communal raising of the offspring by not only the mother but also with the cooperation of the father and older siblings, this primate model involved a nuclear family, parents, and their only offspring, which aimed to mimic the current state of the human social condition. The first-time common marmoset parents exhibited disinhibited behavior followed by cessation of breastfeeding and infant abandonment, leading to the infant failing to thrive. The intervention and recovery process in this case of attachment dysfunction in a social feeding primate model was assessed through video records. The symptoms and treatment effects are indicated by an increase or decrease in body weight relative to the survival limit, referring to previously published criteria15,16. The larger goal of this study is to determine the efficacy of human clinical interventions for the education of mothers and fathers who implement breastfeeding and the midwives who support them. Although the abandonment of vulnerable offspring with some problems by natural selection might be categorized as normal behavior for common marmosets, this clinical model aims to explore human evolutionary strategies of supporting health and well-being for the dignity of all life.

<table><tbody><tr><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Specification&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Common Marmoset</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Self Breeding</td></tr><tr><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Mother&lt;br/&gt; 5 year-old&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Number&lt;/strong&gt;: 1</td></tr><tr><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Father&lt;br/&gt; 5 year-old&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Number&lt;/strong&gt;: 1</td></tr><tr><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>infant&lt;br/&gt; 0-13 day-old&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Number&lt;/strong&gt;: 1</td></tr><tr><td>Formula Milk</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Lebens Haihai, Wakodo&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Number&lt;/strong&gt;: 1</td></tr><tr><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>distilled water</td></tr><tr><td>Plastic glove</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>powder-free</td></tr><tr><td>Syringe</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>1 mL&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Number&lt;/strong&gt;: 1</td></tr><tr><td>Video Cemera</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sony Handycam&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Number&lt;/strong&gt;: 1</td></tr><tr><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>iPhone camera&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Number&lt;/strong&gt;: 1</td></tr><tr><td>Weight Scale</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>0.1 g increment&lt;br/&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Number&lt;/strong&gt;: 1</td></tr></tbody></table>

a common marmoset model of mother-infant intervention for breastfeeding disorders in the presence of paternal inhibition and maternal neglect

Parents&#39; psychological stress during the perinatal and neonatal periods continues to increase in an environment of declining birthrates, aging populations, and shrinking family sizes. The increase in child abuse and neglect cases, most likely by inexperienced and insufficiently knowledgeable parents, necessitates education on childcare and intervention techniques in nursing and midwifery training. In particular, attachment formation early in life between mother and infant is crucial. To accurately teach sensitive and comprehensive information on intervention techniques for mother-child attachment formation, realistic videos, and educational materials are necessary. Although pseudoeducational materials are available, they might be limited in explaining complex realism, particularly to support breastfeeding that involves both parents and child and that encourages interaction between the two.
In a previous study in a common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) model, we experimentally controlled infant feeding and nurturing through 24 h of constant sensing and collected 1 month of quantitative data on psychological indices that possibly translated to psychological development. Age-dependent dynamic visualization of these data by multivariate analyses inferred causal relationships between early parental feeding and psychobiological rhythm formation. In the same primate model, we identified a spontaneous case of breastfeeding failure in which the father inhibited his neonatal infant&#39;s feeding and the mother appeared to abandon nurturing, leading to clinically significant weight loss in the infant.
Thus, we explored intervention techniques to promote mother-infant interaction. The mother was trained to allow the infant to spontaneously explore her breast. Initially, the mother refused to display the feeding pose potentially due to pain associated with breast engorgement. Massage was used to soften the breast and feeding was reintroduced. We hypothesize that activation of instinctive attachment formation mechanisms by encouraging spontaneity in each parent and child is the key to successful feeding intervention.

Diagnosis of underweight and parental infant-rearing abnormality 
A pair of five-year-old common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) obtained from a colony at Saitama Medical University gave birth to their first set of offspring (twins) overnight in May 2019. This was a spontaneous vaginal birth. Only one of the offspring (a male) was found alive and embracing the mother&#39;s body. Another sibling was found dead, the birth weight (less than 25 g) and sex unclear, multiple hours after death. The...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Common Marmoset Model of Mother-Infant Intervention for Breastfeeding Disorders in the Presence of Paternal Inhibition and Maternal Neglect at JoVE.com

A Common Marmoset Model of Mother-Infant Intervention for Breastfeeding Disorders in the Presence of Paternal Inhibition and Maternal Neglect

Here, we present a nonhuman primate model of mother-infant intervention for breastfeeding disorders in the presence of paternal inhibition and maternal neglect. The mate model video complements education to support primate and human caregivers with respect to infants with breastfeeding problems such as pain.

Parents&#39; psychological stress during the perinatal and neonatal periods continues to increase in an environment of declining birthrates, aging ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

367 Views.  Yamaguchi University. Deze techniek leidde ons tot de ontdekking van een geval van zijdeaapjes waarbij tussenkomst van vaders en verwaarlozing van moeders leidden tot het falen van de borstvoeding en het aantal baby's laag. Door instinctieve hechtingsmethoden in de training aan te moedigen, werd de succesvolle voeding hersteld. De toename van gevallen van kindermishandeling en verwaarlozing, hoogstwaarschijnlijk door onervaren en onvoldoende geïnformeerde ouders, dit zijn de gevallen van onderwijs, kinderopvang e...

Video: A Common Marmoset Model of Mother-Infant Intervention for Breastfeeding Disorders in the Presence of Paternal Inhibition and Maternal Neglect

Using Chronic Social Stress to Model Postpartum Depression in Lactating Rodents

Exposure to chronic stress is a reliable predictor of depressive disorders, and social stress is a common ethologically relevant stressor in both animals and humans. However, many animal models of depression were developed in males and are not applicable or effective in studies of postpartum females. Recent studies have reported significant effects of chronic social stress during lactation, an ethologically relevant and effective stressor, on maternal behavior, growth, and behavioral neuroendocrinology. This manuscript will describe this chronic social stress paradigm using repeated exposure of a lactating dam to a novel male intruder, and the assessment of the behavioral, physiological, and neuroendocrine effects of this model. Chronic social stress (CSS) is a valuable model for studying the effects of stress on the behavior and physiology of the dam as well as her offspring and future generations. The exposure of pups to CSS can also be used as an early life stress that has long term effects on behavior, physiology, and neuroendocrinology.

This article describes the use of chronic resident intruder social stress as an ethologically relevant paradigm to model postpartum depression and anxiety in lactating rodents.

Exposure to chronic stress is a reliable predictor of depressive disorders, and social stress is a common ethologically relevant stressor in both animals ...

The Crossmodal Congruency Task as a Means to Obtain an Objective Behavioral Measure in the Rubber Hand Illusion Paradigm

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden hand is touched. If the viewed and felt touches are given at the same time then this is sufficient to induce the compelling experience that the rubber hand is one's own hand. The RHI can be used to investigate exactly how the brain constructs distinct body representations for one's own body. Such representations are crucial for successful interactions with the external world. To obtain a subjective measure of the RHI, researchers typically ask participants to rate statements such as "I felt as if the rubber hand were my hand". Here we demonstrate how the crossmodal congruency task can be used to obtain an objective behavioral measure within this paradigm.
The variant of the crossmodal congruency task we employ involves the presentation of tactile targets and visual distractors. Targets and distractors are spatially congruent (i.e. same finger) on some trials and incongruent (i.e. different finger) on others. The difference in performance between incongruent and congruent trials - the crossmodal congruency effect (CCE) - indexes multisensory interactions. Importantly, the CCE is modulated both by viewing a hand as well as the synchrony of viewed and felt touch which are both crucial factors for the RHI.
The use of the crossmodal congruency task within the RHI paradigm has several advantages. It is a simple behavioral measure which can be repeated many times and which can be obtained during the illusion while participants view the artificial hand. Furthermore, this measure is not susceptible to observer and experimenter biases. The combination of the RHI paradigm with the crossmodal congruency task allows in particular for the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the RHI.

We demonstrate how an objective measure can be employed in the widely employed rubber hand illusion paradigm. This measure is obtained by modifying the well-established crossmodal congruency task. This task allows the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the rubber hand illusion.

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden ...

Uncovering Beat Deafness: Detecting Rhythm Disorders with Synchronized Finger Tapping and Perceptual Timing Tasks

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here with the goal of uncovering rhythm disorders, such as beat deafness. Beat deafness is characterized by poor performance in perceiving durations in auditory rhythmic patterns or poor synchronization of movement with auditory rhythms (e.g., with musical beats). These tasks include the synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of simple and complex auditory stimuli and the detection of rhythmic irregularities (anisochrony detection task) embedded in the same stimuli. These tests, which are easy to administer, include an assessment of both perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities under different conditions (e.g., beat rates and types of auditory material) and are based on the same auditory stimuli, ranging from a simple metronome to a complex musical excerpt. The analysis of synchronized tapping data is performed with circular statistics, which provide reliable measures of synchronization accuracy (e.g., the difference between the timing of the taps and the timing of the pacing stimuli) and consistency. Circular statistics on tapping data are particularly well-suited for detecting individual differences in the general population. Synchronized tapping and anisochrony detection are sensitive measures for identifying profiles of rhythm disorders and have been used with success to uncover cases of poor synchronization with spared perceptual timing. This systematic assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing can be extended to populations of patients with brain damage, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson&#8217;s disease), and developmental disorders (e.g., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).

Behavioral tasks that allow for the assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) are presented. Synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of an auditory stimuli and detecting rhythmic irregularities provides a means of uncovering rhythm disorders.

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here ...

Mindfulness in Motion (MIM): An Onsite Mindfulness Based Intervention (MBI) for Chronically High Stress Work Environments to Increase Resiliency and Work Engagement

A pragmatic mindfulness intervention to benefit personnel working in chronically high-stress environments, delivered onsite during the workday, is timely and valuable to employee and employer alike. Mindfulness in Motion (MIM) is a Mindfulness Based Intervention (MBI) offered as a modified, less time intensive method (compared to Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction), delivered onsite, during work, and intends to enable busy working adults to experience the benefits of mindfulness. It teaches mindful awareness principles, rehearses mindfulness as a group, emphasizes the use of gentle yoga stretches, and utilizes relaxing music in the background of both the group sessions and individual mindfulness practice. MIM is delivered in a group format, for 1 hr/week/8 weeks. CDs and a DVD are provided to facilitate individual practice. The yoga movement is emphasized in the protocol to facilitate a quieting of the mind. The music is included for participants to associate the relaxed state experienced in the group session with their individual practice. To determine the intervention feasibility/efficacy we conducted a randomized wait-list control group in Intensive Care Units (ICUs). ICUs represent a high-stress work environment where personnel experience chronic exposure to catastrophic situations as they care for seriously injured/ill patients. Despite high levels of work-related stress, few interventions have been developed and delivered onsite for such environments. The intervention is delivered on site in the ICU, during work hours, with participants receiving time release to attend sessions. The intervention is well received with 97% retention rate. Work engagement and resiliency increase significantly in the intervention group, compared to the wait-list control group, while participant respiration rates decrease significantly pre-post in 6/8 of the weekly sessions. Participants value institutional support, relaxing music, and the instructor as pivotal to program success. This provides evidence that MIM is feasible, well accepted, and can be effectively implemented in a chronically high-stress work environment.

Mindfulness in Motion MIM: An Onsite Mindfulness Based Intervention MBI for Chronically High Stress Work Environments to Increase Resiliency and Work Engagement

The Mindfulness in Motion (MIM) protocol offers a pragmatic Mindfulness Based Intervention (MBI) on-site, for persons working in chronically high-stress work environments that significantly increases resiliency and work engagement. The protocol has proven feasible, beneficial, and is easily adaptable to other high-stress workplaces.

A pragmatic mindfulness intervention to benefit personnel working in chronically high-stress environments, delivered onsite during the workday, is timely ...

The Social Dimension of Stress: Experimental Manipulations of Social Support and Social Identity in the Trier Social Stress Test

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations supportive behavior of other people as well as positive social relationships can act as powerful resources to cope with stress. In order to study the interplay between these variables, this protocol describes two effective experimental manipulations of social relationships and supportive behavior in the laboratory. In the present article, these two manipulations are implemented in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)&#8212;a standard stress induction paradigm in which participants are subjected to a simulated job interview. More precisely, we propose (a) a manipulation of the relationship between different protagonists in the TSST by making a shared social identity salient and (b) a manipulation of the behavior of the TSST-selection committee, which acts either supportively or unsupportively. These two experimental manipulations are designed in a modular fashion and can be applied independently of each other but can also be combined. Moreover, these two manipulations can also be integrated into other stress protocols and into other standardized social interactions such as trust games, negotiation tasks, or other group tasks.

Previous research on the social dimension of stress has focused on two important variables: social identity and social support. This protocol introduces an effective experimental manipulation of these two social variables and describes their implementation in a standard stress induction paradigm (Trier Social Stress Test).

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations ...

Using a Comparative Species Approach to Investigate the Neurobiology of Paternal Responses

A goal of behavioral neuroscience is to identify underlying neurobiological factors that regulate specific behaviors. Using animal models to accomplish this goal, many methodological strategies require invasive techniques to manipulate the intensity of the behavior of interest (e.g., lesion methods, pharmacological manipulations, microdialysis techniques, genetically-engineered animal models). The utilization of a comparative species approach allows researchers to take advantage of naturally occurring differences in response strategies existing in closely related species. In our lab, we use two species of the Peromyscus genus that differ in paternal responses. The male California deer mouse (Peromyscus californicus) exhibits the same parental responses as the female whereas its cousin, the common deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) exhibits virtually no nurturing/parental responses in the presence of pups. Of specific interest in this article is an exploration of the neurobiological factors associated with the affiliative social responses exhibited by the paternal California deer mouse. Because the behavioral neuroscience approach is multifaceted, the following key components of the study will be briefly addressed: the identification of appropriate species for this type of research; data collection for behavioral analysis; preparation and sectioning of the brains; basic steps involved in immunocytochemistry for the quantification of vasopressin-immunoreactivity; the use of neuroimaging software to quantify the brain tissue; the use of a microsequencing video analysis to score behavior and, finally, the appropriate statistical analyses to provide the most informed interpretations of the research findings.

The comparative species approach allows behavioral neuroscientists to explore various neurobiological factors associated with specific behaviors viewed as characteristic of a specific animal model. Taking advantage of naturally occurring differences in behavior between closely related species, this technique doesn&#x2019;t require invasive techniques to manipulate the expression of the behavior.

A goal of behavioral neuroscience is to identify underlying neurobiological factors that regulate specific behaviors.  Using animal models to accomplish ...

Neuroscience

Using a Murine Model of Psychosocial Stress in Pregnancy as a Translationally Relevant Paradigm for Psychiatric Disorders in Mothers and Infants

The peripartum period is considered a sensitive period where adverse maternal exposures can result in long-term negative consequences for both mother and offspring, including the development of neuropsychiatric disorders. Risk factors linked to the emergence of affective dysregulation in the maternal-infant dyad have been extensively studied. Exposure to psychosocial stress during pregnancy has consistently emerged as one of the strongest predictors. Several rodent models have been created to explore this association; however, these models rely on the use of physical stressors or a limited number of psychosocial stressors presented in a repetitive fashion, which do not accurately capture the type, intensity, and frequency of stressors experienced by women. To overcome these limitations, a chronic psychosocial stress (CGS) paradigm was generated that employs various psychosocial insults of different intensity presented in an unpredictable fashion. The manuscript describes this novel CGS paradigm where pregnant female mice, from gestational day 6.5 to 17.5, are exposed to various stressors during the day and overnight. Day stressors, two per day separated by a 2 h break, range from exposure to foreign objects or predator odor to frequent changes in bedding, removal of bedding, and cage tilting. Overnight stressors include continuous light exposure, changing cage mates, or wetting bedding. We have previously shown that exposure to CGS results in the development of maternal neuroendocrine and behavioral abnormalities, including increased stress reactivity, the emergence of fragmented maternal care patterns, anhedonia, and anxiety-related behaviors, core features of women suffering from perinatal mood and anxiety disorders. This CGS model, therefore, becomes a unique tool that can be used to elucidate molecular defects underlying maternal affective dysregulation, as well as trans-placental mechanisms that impact fetal neurodevelopment and result in negative long-term behavioral consequences in the offspring.

The chronic psychosocial stress (CGS) paradigm employs clinically relevant stressors during pregnancy in mice to model psychiatric disorders of mothers and infants. Here, we provide a step-by-step procedure of applying the CGS paradigm and downstream assessments to validate this model.

The peripartum period is considered a sensitive period where adverse maternal exposures can result in long-term negative consequences for both mother and ...

Mouse Maternal Autonomic Changes from Pregnancy to Pup-Rearing

Analysis of Electrocardiograms and Behavior in Mice from Pregnancy to Lactation Period

Changes in the mother-offspring relationship are presumably accompanied by dynamic changes in the autonomic nervous system. Although temporal measurements of autonomic activity have been performed in human mothers and infants, the analysis of long-term changes remains unexplored. Mouse mothers can form social bonds with their pups and have a short period of pregnancy and lactation, which makes them useful for the examination of physiological changes from pregnancy to pup-rearing. Therefore, a telemetry system was used for several weeks to measure the changes in the autonomic nervous system and the behavior of mouse mothers. The current results showed that an electrocardiogram (ECG) could be stably recorded regardless of the movements of mothers and parturition. ECG analysis showed that the heart rate gradually decreased from pregnancy to lactation, and sympathetic activity sharply increased as the pups developed. Furthermore, the simultaneous recording of behavior and ECG in the home cage enabled us to understand the behavior-dependent influences on the ECG, thereby revealing the characteristics of autonomic nervous activity during each behavior. Thus, the present experimental method helps to understand how the physiological characteristics of mothers change from pregnancy through pup rearing, supporting the healthy development of pups.

A simultaneous recording of autonomic activity and detailed maternal behavior of mother mice from pregnancy to lactation was achieved using a telemetry system. This method helps to understand the dynamics of the physiological and behavioral characteristics in mothers from pregnancy to weaning.

Changes in the mother-offspring relationship are presumably accompanied by dynamic changes in the autonomic nervous system. Although temporal measurements ...

Modeling Early-Life Adversity in Mice Using Limited Bedding and Nesting

Limited Bedding and Nesting as a Model for Early-Life Adversity in Mice

Early-life adversity (ELA), such as abuse, neglect, lack of resources, and an unpredictable home environment, is a known risk factor for developing neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression. Animal models for ELA have been used to study the impact of chronic stress on brain development, and typically rely on manipulating the quality and/or quantity of maternal care, as this is the major source of early-life experiences in mammals, including humans. Here, a detailed protocol for employing the Limited Bedding and Nesting (LBN) model in mice is provided. This model mimics a low-resource environment, which provokes fragmented and unpredictable patterns of maternal care during a critical developmental window (postnatal days 2-9) by limiting the amount of nesting materials given to the dam to build a nest for her pups and separating the mice from the bedding via a mesh platform in the cage. Representative data are provided to illustrate the changes in maternal behavior, as well as the diminished pup weights and long-term changes in basal corticosterone levels, that result from the LBN model. As adults, offspring reared&#160;in the LBN environment have been shown to exhibit an aberrant stress response, cognitive deficits, and anhedonia-like behavior. Therefore, this model is an important tool to define how the maturation of stress-sensitive brain circuits is altered by ELA and results in long-term behavioral changes that confer vulnerability to mental disorders.

Author Spotlight: Exploring Microglial Interactions with Stress-Response Circuitry Using the Limited Bedding and Nesting Model

This protocol describes an animal model for studying how early-life adversity, provoked by an impoverished environment and unpredictable maternal care during the early postnatal period, affects brain development and the future risk of mental disorders.

Early-life adversity (ELA), such as abuse, neglect, lack of resources, and an unpredictable home environment, is a known risk factor for developing ...

Enhancing Survival and Development of Marmosets Using a Hand-Rearing Approach

Hand-Rearing Method for Infant Marmosets

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is a small and highly social New World monkey with high reproduction rates, which has been proven to be a compelling non-human primate model for biomedical and neuroscience research. Some females give birth to triplets; however, the parents cannot raise all of them. To save these infants, we have developed a hand-rearing method for raising newborn marmosets. In this protocol, we describe the formula of the food, the time for feeding, the configuration of the temperature and humidity, as well as the adaptation of the hand-reared infants to the colony environment. This hand-rearing method significantly increases the survival rate of marmoset infants (without hand-rearing: 45%; with hand-rearing: 86%) and provides the opportunity to study the development of marmoset infants with similar genetic backgrounds raised in different postnatal environments. As the method is practical and easy to use, we anticipate that it could also be applied to other labs working with common marmosets.

Author Spotlight: Marmoset Research - Scope and Challenges 

Here, we describe a hand-rearing method for raising infant marmosets in an animal incubator. This method greatly increases the survival rate of marmoset infants, which provides the opportunity to study the development of marmoset infants with similar genetic backgrounds raised in different postnatal environments.

A Common Marmoset Model of Mother-Infant Intervention for Breastfeeding Disorders in the Presence of Paternal Inhibition and Maternal Neglect

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