This work was supported by the National Key Technologies R&#38;D Program of China (2021YFA0715302 and 2021YFE0191800), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (61975035 and 52150610489), and the Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (22ZR1405000).

1. Pre-processing of materials
NOTE: Ni-foam (commercially available, see Table of Materials) with 25 mm x 25 mm x 1.5 mm is used for the H2O2 FC&#39;s anode.
<ol>
	<li>Immerse the Ni-foam sample into alcohol and deionized (DI) water, sonicate for three times, 5 min in solvent and water. Subsequently, place the Ni-foam on a clean glass substrate.</li>
	<li>Utilize the carbon fiber cloth (see Table of Materials) as the cathode substrate. Cut the carbon cloth into 25 mm x 25 mm square pieces using scissors.</li>
	<li>Immerse the carbon cloth sample into acetone, 75% alcohol, DI water, and sonicate three times for 5 min, respectively. Then, flush the carbon cloth with DI water to remove residues of alcohol. Place the carbon cloth on a glass substrate. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Based on the discussed research results15,16, Au as the cathode and Ni as the anode have been chosen as catalysts for H2O2 FCs. Metals like Pt, Pd, Ni, Au, and Ag have specific catalytical selectivity towards H2O2 oxidation or reduction reaction, making them suitable electrode materials. The Au@carbon fiber electrode offers a combination of electrocatalytic activity, stability, and enhanced conductivity, making it a suitable choice for membraneless hydrogen peroxide fuel cells.</li>
</ol>
2. Electroplating of Au on a carbon cloth
<ol>
	<li>Prepare reagents for electroplating as given by the following: chloroauric acid (HAuCl4), potassium chloride (KCl), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and DI water (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Prepare 80 mL solutions (based on the volume of the beaker) in a clean beaker with 0.005 M HAuCl4, 0.1 M KCl, and 0.01 M HCl. Seal the opening and stir the solution for 15 min.</li>
	<li>Prepare the electroplating material carbon cloth, and the plating solution. The electroplating process is run by Electrochemical Station (ES) (see Table of Materials). 
	NOTE: Three electrode method is selected here for plating: carbon cloth as the Working Electrode (WE), graphite rod as the Counter Electrode (CE), and Ag/AgCl (saturated 1 M KCl solution) as the Reference Electrode (RE).</li>
	<li>Ensure each electrode is clamping the correct object. Immerse electrodes into the plating solution.</li>
	<li>Start the ES. Set the program to the Chronoamperometry Method, as shown in Figure 1C. Ensure a single depositing circle is as follows: working potential 0.1 V for 0.1 s and resting potential 0.2 V for 0.2 s. As the result, the AuCl4- ion diffuses uniformly around the WE.
	<ol>
		<li>Set Electroplating Circles at 800, 1600, 2400, and 3200 circles. Run the program. 
		NOTE: Typically, the Chronoamperometry method program in ES cannot achieve 1600 cycles. Alternatively, Multi-Potential Steps program of ES can also be used for the electroplating method, the same selections as the Chronoamperometry method (see manufacturer&#39;s instructions).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After electroplating, close the ES, pack the reagents, and collect Au electroplated carbon fiber cloth (Au@CF).</li>
	<li>Immerse the Au@CF into the DI water three times to remove the solution residues. Place it on a glass substrate for drying in the air.</li>
	<li>Cut the un-plated part of the Au@CF caused by the clamps to prevent part of CF from contacting solutions.</li>
	<li>Measure the size of Au@CF (a: length, b: width) with a ruler for calculating current/power densities.</li>
</ol>
3. Performance characterization of an FC
<ol>
	<li>Prepare solutions with two concentrations, one solution for pH gradient (1 mol H2O2, pH = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13), while the other one for H2O2 (CHP) gradient (pH = 1, CHP = 0.25 mol, 0.5 mol, 1 mol, 2 mol).</li>
	<li>Characterize the FC performance by ES with two electrodes for OCP and three electrodes for the polarization and power output curves (steps 3.3-3.6).</li>
	<li>Re-wash Ni-foam and Au@CF again with DI water two times. Place them aside for standby.</li>
	<li>Obtain OCP data during the testing of an FC: OCP is an essential parameter in the FC performance.
	<ol>
		<li>Use Ni-foam as both RE and CE, and Au@CF as WE. Add the solution to the test beaker. Connect electrodes to the ES. Turn on the ES.</li>
		<li>Set the program to Open Circuit Potential - Time Method; Run Time: 400 s, Sample Interval: 0.1 s, High E Limit: 1 V, Low E Limit: -1 V. Run the program. 
		NOTE: It often takes time for the FC output to stabilize. Run measurements until stable FC results are obtained.</li>
		<li>Measure the data. Close the program. Wash the beaker and electrodes. Add other solutions for specific tests.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Test output performance of FC based on OCP data. Here, only original Linear Sweep Voltammetry (LSV) curve data is required. Further output data can be calculated from the LSV curve.
	<ol>
		<li>Re-wash Ni-foam and Au@CF with DI water (repeat two times). Use Ni-foam as RE and CE, Au@CF as WE. Add the solution to the test beaker.</li>
		<li>Set the program to LSV, OCP as Initial E, 0 V as Final E, scan rate as 0.01 V/s, corresponding to the conditions of open circuit (OCP) and short circuit (0 V). Run the program.</li>
		<li>Collect the data, close the program, wash the beaker and electrodes, and add other required solutions for specific tests.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Wash the electrodes after experiments and store them on a glass. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Experiment data can be stored in EXCEL format.</li>
</ol>
4. Structural characterization of electrodes
NOTE: XRD is a facile and reliable method to analyze samples. XRD is taken to detect elements of the electrodes, such as electroplated Au on the carbon cloth. XRD tests are done before and after FC characterization to analyze potential corrosion and degradation of electrodes. For example, Au particles&#39; can detach from CF, and nickel corrosion may occur in acidic solutions5.
<ol>
	<li>Wash the electrodes with DI water (two times) and dry them in the air at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Scrape off metals on the electrodes with tweezers. Collect the metal powder and place it in a container.</li>
	<li>Perform XRD tests17on the metal powder samples.</li>
	<li>Take SEM to characterize the morphology of the electrodes and investigate infiltration and electroplating between the gold and carbon fiber cloth. In addition, characterize the corrosion of nickel by SEM.</li>
</ol>
5. Data processing and power output calculation
<ol>
	<li>All data can be analyzed in EXCEL. Use Excel or Origin to analyze data and plot experimental graphs.</li>
	<li>Use the OCP data to characterize the selectivity of electrodes, e.g., using a table or a line figure. Use average potential for table legends. Typically, a line figure is used to demonstrate the stability of the FC.</li>
	<li>Use the LSV data to characterize the output performance of FC. There are two columns of data in the EXCEL file. Typically, one data set shows potential (U), and the other is recorded current (I). Calculate the power output using the following equation: P = U&#160;&#215;&#160;I 
	NOTE: A high current (I) value shows a satisfactory performance of the FC. For example, a large electrode surface area results in higher currents. A normalized parameter referred to FCs&#39; performance is current density (ID), which is equal to the current divided by the surface area (A) of the electrodes: ID = I/A</li>
	<li>Subsequently, calculate the power density (PD) as: PD = U&#160;&#215; ID 
	NOTE:It is essential to take the absolute value, as preliminary data values may be negative due to the direction of the current, which is not desirable during measurements.</li>
	<li>Comparing parameters using U, ID, and PD within a single figure is straightforward. Assign ID to the x-axis, U to the left y-axis, and PD to the right y-axis.</li>
</ol>

Exploring Innovative 3D Electrodes for Hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cells

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	<li>Sazali, N., Wan Salleh, W. N., Jamaludin, A. S., Mhd Razali, M. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+perspectives+on+fuel+cell+technology:+A+brief+review.">New perspectives on fuel cell technology: A brief review.</a> Membranes. 10 (5), 99 (2020).</li><li>Singla, M. K., Nijhawan, P., Oberoi, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrogen+fuel+and+fuel+cell+technology+for+cleaner+future:+a+review.">Hydrogen fuel and fuel cell technology for cleaner future: a review.</a> Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 28 (13), 15607-15626 (2021).</li><li>Cao, D., Chen, D., Lan, J., Wang, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+alkaline+direct+NaBH4-H2O2+fuel+cell+with+high+power+density.">An alkaline direct NaBH4-H2O2 fuel cell with high power density.</a> Journal of Power Sources. 190 (2), 346-350 (2009).</li><li>Lan, R., Tao, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ammonia+as+a+suitable+fuel+for+fuel+cells.">Ammonia as a suitable fuel for fuel cells.</a> Frontiers in Energy Research. 2, 2014 (2014).</li><li>Alias, M. S., Kamarudin, S. K., Zainoodin, A. M., Masdar, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Active+direct+methanol+fuel+cell:+An+overview.">Active direct methanol fuel cell: An overview.</a> International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 45 (38), 19620-19641 (2020).</li><li>Ferrigno, R., Stroock, A. D., Clark, T. D., Mayer, M., Whitesides, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Membraneless+vanadium+redox+fuel+cell+using+laminar+flow.">Membraneless vanadium redox fuel cell using laminar flow.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 124 (44), 12930-12931 (2002).</li><li>Yan, X., Xu, A., Zeng, L., Gao, P., Zhao, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+paper-based+microfluidic+fuel+cell+with+hydrogen+peroxide+as+fuel+and+oxidant.">A paper-based microfluidic fuel cell with hydrogen peroxide as fuel and oxidant.</a> Energy Technology. 6 (1), 140-143 (2018).</li><li>Ha, S. M., Ahn, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laminar+flow-based+micro+fuel+cell+utilizing+grooved+electrode+surface.">Laminar flow-based micro fuel cell utilizing grooved electrode surface.</a> Journal of Power Sources. 267, 731-738 (2014).</li><li>Liu, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+woven+thread-based+microfluidic+fuel+cell+with+graphite+rod+electrodes.">A woven thread-based microfluidic fuel cell with graphite rod electrodes.</a> International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 43 (49), 22467-22473 (2018).</li><li>Peng, J., Zhang, Z. Y., Niu, H. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Three-dimensional+two-phase+model+for+a+membraneless+fuel+cell+using+decomposition+of+hydrogen+peroxide+with+y-shaped+microchannel.">A Three-dimensional two-phase model for a membraneless fuel cell using decomposition of hydrogen peroxide with y-shaped microchannel.</a> Fuel Cells. 12 (6), 1009-1018 (2012).</li><li>Wu, K. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Highly+selective+hydrogen+peroxide+electrosynthesis+on+carbon:+in+situ+interface+engineering+with+surfactants.">Highly selective hydrogen peroxide electrosynthesis on carbon: in situ interface engineering with surfactants.</a> Chem. 6 (6), 1443-1458 (2020).</li><li>Yang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+facile+microfluidic+hydrogen+peroxide+fuel+cell+with+high+performance:+electrode+interface+and+power-generation+properties.">A facile microfluidic hydrogen peroxide fuel cell with high performance: electrode interface and power-generation properties.</a> ACS Applied Energy Materials. 1 (10), 5328-5335 (2018).</li><li>An, L., Zhao, T., Yan, X., Zhou, X., Tan, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+dual+role+of+hydrogen+peroxide+in+fuel+cells.">The dual role of hydrogen peroxide in fuel cells.</a> Science Bulletin. 60 (1), 55-64 (2015).</li><li>Yamazaki, S. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+fuel+cell+with+selective+electrocatalysts+using+hydrogen+peroxide+as+both+an+electron+acceptor+and+a+fuel.">A fuel cell with selective electrocatalysts using hydrogen peroxide as both an electron acceptor and a fuel.</a> Journal of Power Sources. 178 (1), 20-25 (2008).</li><li>Sanli, A. E., Ayta&#231;, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Response+to+Disselkamp:+Direct+peroxide/peroxide+fuel+cell+as+a+novel+type+fuel+cell.">Response to Disselkamp: Direct peroxide/peroxide fuel cell as a novel type fuel cell.</a> International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 36 (1), 869-875 (2011).</li><li>Gu, L., Nie, L., George H, M. i. l. e. y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cathode+electrocatalyst+selection+and+deposition+for+a+direct+borohydride/hydrogen+peroxide+fuel+cell.">Cathode electrocatalyst selection and deposition for a direct borohydride/hydrogen peroxide fuel cell.</a> Journal of Power Sources. 173 (1), 77-85 (2007).</li><li>Yang, F., Cheng, K., Wu, T., Zhang, Y., Yin, J., Wang, G., Cao, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+Au+nanodendrites+supported+on+carbon+fiber+cloth+and+its+catalytic+performance+to+H2O2+electroreduction+and+electrooxidation.">Preparation of Au nanodendrites supported on carbon fiber cloth and its catalytic performance to H2O2 electroreduction and electrooxidation.</a> RSC Advances. 3 (16), 5483-5490 (2013).</li><li>Vidal-Iglesias, F. J., Solla-Gull&#243;n, J., Herrero, E., Rodes, A., Aldaz, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Do+you+really+understand+the+electrochemical+Nernst+equation.">Do you really understand the electrochemical Nernst equation.</a> Electrocatalysis. 4, 1-9 (2013).</li><li>Jing, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+open+circuit+potential+of+hydrogen+peroxide+at+noble+and+glassy+carbon+electrodes+in+acidic+and+basic+electrolytes.">The open circuit potential of hydrogen peroxide at noble and glassy carbon electrodes in acidic and basic electrolytes.</a> Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 658 (1-2), 46-51 (2011).</li><li>Eaves, S., Eaves, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+cost+comparison+of+fuel-cell+and+battery+electric+vehicles.">A cost comparison of fuel-cell and battery electric vehicles.</a> Journal of Power Sources. 130 (1-2), 208-212 (2004).</li><li>Wee, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Which+type+of+fuel+cell+is+more+competitive+for+portable+application:+Direct+methanol+fuel+cells+or+direct+borohydride+fuel+cells.">Which type of fuel cell is more competitive for portable application: Direct methanol fuel cells or direct borohydride fuel cells.</a> Journal of Power Sources. 161 (1), 1-10 (2006).</li><li>Muthukumar, P., Groll, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Erratum+to+&amp;#34;Metal+hydride+based+heating+and+cooling+systems:+a+review&amp;#34.">Erratum to &amp;#34;Metal hydride based heating and cooling systems: a review&amp;#34.</a> International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 35 (16), 8816-8829 (2010).</li></ol>

Authors have no conflicts to declare.

Several parameters significantly influence the performance of a membraneless hydrogen peroxide fuel cell beyond solution pH and H2O2 concentration. The choice of electrode material dictates electrocatalytic activity and stability, while the electrode&#39;s surface area can enhance reaction sites. Operating temperature affects reaction kinetics, and the flow rate of reactants can determine the mixing efficiency of fuel and oxidant. The concentration of any catalyst used is pivotal for reaction rates,...

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that utilizes fuel and oxidant to convert chemicals into electrical energy. FCs have higher energy conversion efficiency than traditional combustion engines since they are not bound by the Carnot Cycle1. By utilizing fuels such as hydrogen (H2)2, borohydride-hydrogen (NaBH4)3, and ammonia (NH3)4, FCs have become a promising energy source that is environmentally clean and can achieve high performance, offering significant potential to reduce human dependence on fossil fuels. However, FC technology faces specific challenges. One prevalent issue is the internal role of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) in the FC system, which acts as a safeguard against internal short circuits. The integration of an electrolytic membrane contributes to increased fabrication costs, internal circuit resistance, and architectural complexity5. Moreover, transforming single-compartment FCs into multi-stack arrays introduces additional complications due to the intricate process of integrating flow channels, electrodes, and plates to enhance power and current outputs5.
Over the past decades, concerted efforts have been made to address these membrane-related challenges and streamline the FC system. Notably, the emergence of membraneless FC configurations using laminar co-flows at low Reynold numbers has offered an innovative solution. In such setups, the interface between two flows functions as a &#34;virtual&#34; proton-conducting membrane6. Laminar flow-based FCs (LFFCs) have been widely studied, leveraging the benefits of microfluidics7,8,9,10. However, LFFCs require stringent conditions, including high energy input for pumping laminar fuels/oxidants, mitigation of reactant crossover in fluidic streams, and optimization of hydrodynamic parameters.
Recently, H2O2 has gained interest as a potential fuel and oxidant due to its carbon-neutral nature, yielding water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) during electrooxidation and electroreduction processes at electrodes11,12. H2O2 can be mass-produced using a two-electron reduction process or by a two-electron oxidation process from water12. Subsequently, in contrast to other gaseous fuels, liquid H2O2 fuel can be integrated into existing gasoline infrastructure 5. Besides, the H2O2 disproportionation reaction makes it possible to serve H2O2 as both fuel and oxidant. Figure 1A shows a schematic structure of a facile H2O2 FC&#39;s architecture. In comparison to traditional FCs2,3,4, the H2O2 FC utilizes the advantages of device &#34;simplicity.&#34; Yamasaki et al. demonstrated membraneless H2O2 FCs, playing the role of both fuel and oxidant. The described mechanism of electrical energy generation has inspired research communities to continue this research direction6. Subsequently, electrooxidation and electroreduction mechanisms using H2O2 as a fuel and oxidant have been represented by the following reactions13,14
In the acidic media:
Anode: H2O2 &#8594; O2 + 2H+ + 2e-; Ea1 = 0.68 V vs. SHE 
Cathode: H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- &#8594; 2H2O; Ea2 = 1.77 V vs. SHE 
Total: 2 H2O2 &#8594; 2H2O + O2
In the basic media:
H2O2 + OH- &#8594; HO2- + H2O 
Anode: HO2- + OH- &#8594; O2 + H2O + 2e-; Eb1 = 0.15 V vs. SHE 
Cathode: HO2- + H2O + 2e- &#8594; 3OH-; Eb2 = 0.87 V vs. SHE 
Total: 2 H2O2 &#8594; 2H2O + O2
Figure 1B illustrates the working principle of H2O2 FCs. H2O2 donates electrons at the anode and accepts electrons at the cathode. Electron transfer between the anode and cathode occurs through an external circuit, resulting in the generation of electricity. The theoretical open circuit potential (OCP) of H2O2 FC is 1.09 V in acidic media and 0.62 V in basic media13. However, numerous experimental results have shown lower values, reaching up to 0.75 V in acidic media and 0.35 V in basic media, compared to the theoretical OCP. This observation can be attributed to the presence of a mixed potential13. Additionally, the power and current output of H2O2 FCs cannot compete with the mentioned FCs2,3,4due to the limited catalytic selectivity of the electrodes. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that current H2O2 FC technology can outperform H2, NaBH4, and NH3 FCs in terms of overall cost, as shown in Table 1. Thus, the enhanced catalytic selectivity of electrodes for H2O2 electrooxidation and electroreduction remains a significant challenge for these devices.
In this study, we introduce a three-dimensional porous structure electrode to improve the interaction between the electrode and H2O2 fuel, aiming to increase the reaction rate and enhance power and current output. We also investigate the impact of solution pH and H2O2 concentration on the FC&#39;s performance. The electrode pair used in this study comprises a gold-electroplated carbon fiber cloth and nickel foam. Structural characterization is conducted using X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), with Open Circuit Potential (OCP), polarization, and power output curves serving as the primary parameters for FC testing.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Acetone</td><td>Merck &amp;amp; Co. Inc. (MRK)</td><td>67-64-1</td><td>solution for pre-process of materials</td></tr><tr><td>Alcohol</td><td>Merck &amp;amp; Co. Inc. (MRK)</td><td>64-17-5</td><td>solution for pre-process of materials</td></tr><tr><td>Carbon fiber cloth</td><td>Soochow Willtek photoelectric materials co.,Ltd.</td><td>W0S1011</td><td>substrate material for electroplating method</td></tr><tr><td>Electrochemistry station</td><td>&amp;nbsp;Shanghai Chenhua Instrument Co., Ltd.</td><td>CHI600E</td><td>device for electroplating method and fuel cell performance characterization</td></tr><tr><td>Gold chloride trihydrate</td><td>Shanghai Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co.,Ltd.</td><td>G141105-1g</td><td>main solute for electroplating method</td></tr><tr><td>Hydrochloric acid</td><td>Sinopharm Chemical ReagentCo., Ltd</td><td>10011018</td><td>adjustment of solution pH</td></tr><tr><td>Hydrogen peroxide</td><td>Sinopharm Chemical ReagentCo., Ltd</td><td>10011208</td><td>fuel of cell</td></tr><tr><td>Nickel foam</td><td>Willtek photoelectric materials co.ltd(Soochow,China)</td><td>KSH-2011</td><td>anode material for hydrogen peroxide fuel cell</td></tr><tr><td>Potassium chloride</td><td>Shanghai Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co.,Ltd.</td><td>10016308</td><td>additives for electroplating method</td></tr><tr><td>Scanning electron microscope</td><td>Carl Zeiss AG</td><td>EVO 10</td><td>structural characterization for sample</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium hydroxide</td><td>Sinopharm Chemical ReagentCo., Ltd</td><td>10019718</td><td>adjustment of solution pH</td></tr><tr><td>X-Ray differaction machine</td><td>Bruker Corporation</td><td>D8 Advance</td><td>structural characterization for sample</td></tr></tbody></table>

membraneless hydrogen peroxide fuel cells as a promising clean energy source

In an in-depth investigation of membraneless hydrogen peroxide-based fuel cells (H2O2 FCs), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a carbon-neutral compound, is demonstrated to undergo electrochemical decomposition to produce H2O, O2, and electrical energy. The unique redox properties of H2O2 position it as a viable candidate for sustainable energy applications. The proposed membraneless design addresses the limitations of conventional fuel cells, including fabrication complexities and design challenges. A novel three-dimensional electrode, synthesized via electroplating techniques, is introduced. Constructed from Au-electroplated carbon fiber cloth combined with Ni-foam, this electrode showcases enhanced electrochemical reaction kinetics, leading to an increased power density for H2O2 FCs. The performance of fuel cells is intricately linked to the pH levels of the electrolyte solution. Beyond FC applications, such electrodes hold potential in portable energy systems and as high surface area catalysts. This study emphasizes the significance of electrode engineering in optimizing the potential of H2O2 as an environmentally friendly energy source.

Electroplating results 
Figure 2&#160;shows the electroplating results. Figure 2A indicates the X-ray diffraction result. Figure 2B,C are the micrographs. Figure 2D,E are SEM results. The effective deposition of gold (Au) on the carbon fiber cloth (CF) was first confirmed using the physical change of color in the carbon fiber cloth from black to go...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Design and Evaluation of Au-Electroplated Carbon Fiber Cloth Electrodes for Hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cells at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Design and Evaluation of Au-Electroplated Carbon Fiber Cloth Electrodes for Hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cells 

This protocol introduces the design and evaluation of innovative three-dimensional electrodes for hydrogen peroxide fuel cells, utilizing Au-electroplated carbon fiber cloth and Ni-foam electrodes. The research findings highlight hydrogen peroxide's potential as a promising candidate for sustainable energy technologies.

Membraneless Hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cells as a Promising Clean Energy Source

In an in-depth investigation of membraneless hydrogen peroxide-based fuel cells (H2O2 FCs), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a carbon-neutral compound, is ...

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2.7K Views.  Fudan University. We hebben een methode geïllustreerd om nano-gouddeeltjes op het koolstofdoek met een hoog oppervlak te deponeren. Het gouden gegalvaniseerde koolstofdoek is zware rasterprestaties in het dienen als kathode voor waterstofperoxidebrandstofcellen. Vanwege het specifieke mechanisme van membraanloze waterstofperoxide-brandstofcellen, zijn onderzoekers momenteel gebaseerd op het ontwikkelen van edelmetaalcomplexen als elektroden en het verbeteren van het gevoelige gebied van deze elektroden door g...

Video: Auteur in de schijnwerpers: ontwerp en evaluatie van Au-geëlektroplateerde koolstofvezel doekelektroden voor waterstofperoxide-brandstofcellen 

Probing and Mapping Electrode Surfaces in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen 1-7. The performance of SOFCs and the rates of many chemical and energy transformation processes in energy storage and conversion devices in general are limited primarily by charge and mass transfer along electrode surfaces and across interfaces. Unfortunately, the mechanistic understanding of these processes is still lacking, due largely to the difficulty of characterizing these processes under in situ conditions. This knowledge gap is a chief obstacle to SOFC commercialization. The development of tools for probing and mapping surface chemistries relevant to electrode reactions is vital to unraveling the mechanisms of surface processes and to achieving rational design of new electrode materials for more efficient energy storage and conversion2. Among the relatively few in situ surface analysis methods, Raman spectroscopy can be performed even with high temperatures and harsh atmospheres, making it ideal for characterizing chemical processes relevant to SOFC anode performance and degradation8-12. It can also be used alongside electrochemical measurements, potentially allowing direct correlation of electrochemistry to surface chemistry in an operating cell. Proper in situ Raman mapping measurements would be useful for pin-pointing important anode reaction mechanisms because of its sensitivity to the relevant species, including anode performance degradation through carbon deposition8, 10, 13, 14 ("coking") and sulfur poisoning11, 15 and the manner in which surface modifications stave off this degradation16. The current work demonstrates significant progress towards this capability. In addition, the family of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques provides a special approach to interrogate the electrode surface with nanoscale resolution. Besides the surface topography that is routinely collected by AFM and STM, other properties such as local electronic states, ion diffusion coefficient and surface potential can also be investigated17-22. In this work, electrochemical measurements, Raman spectroscopy, and SPM were used in conjunction with a novel test electrode platform that consists of a Ni mesh electrode embedded in an yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) electrolyte. Cell performance testing and impedance spectroscopy under fuel containing H2S was characterized, and Raman mapping was used to further elucidate the nature of sulfur poisoning. In situ Raman monitoring was used to investigate coking behavior. Finally, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) were used to further visualize carbon deposition on the nanoscale. From this research, we desire to produce a more complete picture of the SOFC anode.

We present a unique platform for characterizing electrode surfaces in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) that allows simultaneous performance of multiple characterization techniques (e.g. in situ Raman spectroscopy and scanning probe microscopy alongside electrochemical measurements). Complementary information from these analyses may help to advance toward a more profound understanding of electrode reaction and degradation mechanisms, providing insights into rational design of better materials for SOFCs.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are potentially the most efficient and cost-effective solution to utilization of a wide variety of fuels beyond hydrogen ...

Flame Experiments at the Advanced Light Source: New Insights into Soot Formation Processes

The following experimental protocols and the accompanying video are concerned with the flame experiments that are performed at the Chemical Dynamics Beamline of the Advanced Light Source (ALS) of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory1-4. This video demonstrates how the complex chemical structures of laboratory-based model flames are analyzed using flame-sampling mass spectrometry with tunable synchrotron-generated vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) radiation. This experimental approach combines isomer-resolving capabilities with high sensitivity and a large dynamic range5,6. The first part of the video describes experiments involving burner-stabilized, reduced-pressure (20-80 mbar) laminar premixed flames. A small hydrocarbon fuel was used for the selected flame to demonstrate the general experimental approach. It is shown how species&#8217; profiles are acquired as a function of distance from the burner surface and how the tunability of the VUV photon energy is used advantageously to identify many combustion intermediates based on their ionization energies. For example, this technique has been used to study gas-phase aspects of the soot-formation processes, and the video shows how the resonance-stabilized radicals, such as C3H3, C3H5, and i-C4H5, are identified as important intermediates7. The work has been focused on soot formation processes, and, from the chemical point of view, this process is very intriguing because chemical structures containing millions of carbon atoms are assembled from a fuel molecule possessing only a few carbon atoms in just milliseconds. The second part of the video highlights a new experiment, in which an opposed-flow diffusion flame and synchrotron-based aerosol mass spectrometry are used to study the chemical composition of the combustion-generated soot particles4. The experimental results indicate that the widely accepted H-abstraction-C2H2-addition (HACA) mechanism is not the sole molecular growth process responsible for the formation of the observed large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Gas sampling from laboratory-scale flames with online analysis of all species by mass spectrometry is a powerful method to investigate the complex mixture of chemical compounds occurring during combustion processes. Coupled with tunable soft ionization via synchrotron-generated vacuum-ultraviolet radiation, this technique provides isomer-resolved information and potentially fragment-free mass spectra.

The following experimental protocols and the accompanying video are concerned with the flame experiments that are performed at the Chemical Dynamics ...

Light-driven Enzymatic Decarboxylation

Oxidoreductases belong to the most-applied industrial enzymes. Nevertheless, they need external electrons whose supply is often costly and challenging. Recycling of the electron donors NADH or NADPH requires the use of additional enzymes and sacrificial substrates. Interestingly, several oxidoreductases accept hydrogen peroxide as electron donor. While being inexpensive, this reagent often reduces the stability of enzymes. A solution to this problem is the in situ generation of the cofactor. The continuous supply of the cofactor at low concentration drives the reaction without impairing enzyme stability. This paper demonstrates a method for the light-catalyzed in situ generation of hydrogen peroxide with the example of the heme-dependent fatty acid decarboxylase OleTJE. The fatty acid decarboxylase OleTJE was discovered due to its unique ability to produce long-chain 1-alkenes from fatty acids, a hitherto unknown enzymatic reaction. 1-alkenes are widely used additives for plasticizers and lubricants. OleTJE has been shown to accept electrons from hydrogen peroxide for the oxidative decarboxylation. While addition of hydrogen peroxide damages the enzyme and results in low yields, in situ generation of the cofactor circumvents this problem. The photobiocatalytic system shows clear advantages regarding enzyme activity and yield, resulting in a simple and efficient system for fatty acid decarboxylation.

We describe a protocol for the light-catalyzed generation of hydrogen peroxide &#8212; a cofactor for oxidative transformations.

Oxidoreductases belong to the most-applied industrial enzymes. Nevertheless, they need external electrons whose supply is often costly and challenging. ...

Chemistry

Failure Analysis of Batteries Using Synchrotron-based Hard X-ray Microtomography

Imaging morphological changes that occur during the lifetime of rechargeable batteries is necessary to understand how these devices fail. Since the advent of lithium-ion batteries, researchers have known that the lithium metal anode has the highest theoretical energy density of any anode material. However, rechargeable batteries containing a lithium metal anode are not widely used in consumer products because the growth of lithium dendrites from the anode upon charging of the battery causes premature cell failure by short circuit. Lithium dendrites can also form in commercial lithium-ion batteries with graphite anodes if they are improperly charged. We demonstrate that lithium dendrite growth can be studied using synchrotron-based hard X-ray microtomography. This non-destructive imaging technique allows researchers to study the growth of lithium dendrites, in addition to other morphological changes inside batteries, and subsequently develop methods to extend battery life.

Synchrotron-based hard X-ray microtomography is used to image the electrochemical growth of dendrites from a lithium metal electrode through a solid polymer electrolyte membrane.

Imaging morphological changes that occur during the lifetime of rechargeable batteries is necessary to understand how these devices fail. Since the advent ...

A Simple, Low-cost, and Robust System to Measure the Volume of Hydrogen Evolved by Chemical Reactions with Aqueous Solutions

There is a growing research interest in the development of portable systems which can deliver hydrogen on-demand to proton exchange membrane (PEM) hydrogen fuel cells. Researchers seeking to develop such systems require a method of measuring the generated hydrogen. Herein, we describe a simple, low-cost, and robust method to measure the hydrogen generated from the reaction of solids with aqueous solutions. The reactions are conducted in a conventional one-necked round-bottomed flask placed in a temperature controlled water bath. The hydrogen generated from the reaction in the flask is channeled through tubing into a water-filled inverted measuring cylinder. The water displaced from the measuring cylinder by the incoming gas is diverted into a beaker on a balance. The balance is connected to a computer, and the change in the mass reading of the balance over time is recorded using data collection and spreadsheet software programs. The data can then be approximately corrected for water vapor using the method described herein, and parameters such as the total hydrogen yield, the hydrogen generation rate, and the induction period can also be deduced. The size of the measuring cylinder and the resolution of the balance can be changed to adapt the setup to different hydrogen volumes and flow rates.

The study of methods to generate on-demand hydrogen for fuel cells continues to grow in importance. However, systems to measure hydrogen evolution from the reaction of chemicals with water can be complicated and expensive. This article details a simple, low-cost, and robust method to measure the evolution of hydrogen gas.

There is a growing research interest in the development of portable systems which can deliver hydrogen on-demand to proton exchange membrane (PEM) ...

Combustion Characterization and Model Fuel Development for Micro-tubular Flame-assisted Fuel Cells

Combustion based power generation has been accomplished for many years through a number of heat engine systems. Recently, a move towards small scale power generation and micro combustion as well as development in fuel cell research has created new means of power generation that combine solid oxide fuel cells with open flames and combustion exhaust. Instead of relying upon the heat of combustion, these solid oxide fuel cell systems rely on reforming of the fuel via combustion to generate syngas for electrochemical power generation. Procedures were developed to assess the combustion by-products under a wide range of conditions. While theoretical and computational procedures have been developed for assessing fuel-rich combustion exhaust in these applications, experimental techniques have also emerged. The experimental procedures often rely upon a gas chromatograph or mass spectrometer analysis of the flame and exhaust to assess the combustion process as a fuel reformer and means of heat generation. The experimental techniques developed in these areas have been applied anew for the development of the micro-tubular flame-assisted fuel cell. The protocol discussed in this work builds on past techniques to specify a procedure for characterizing fuel-rich combustion exhaust and developing a model fuel-rich combustion exhaust for use in flame-assisted fuel cell testing. The development of the procedure and its applications and limitations are discussed.

A protocol for creating a model fuel-rich combustion exhaust is developed through combustion characterization and is applied for micro-tubular flame-assisted fuel cell testing and research.

Combustion based power generation has been accomplished for many years through a number of heat engine systems. Recently, a move towards small scale power ...

Experimental Methods for Efficient Solar Hydrogen Production in Microgravity Environment

Long-term space flights and cis-lunar research platforms require a sustainable and light life-support hardware which can be reliably employed outside the Earth's atmosphere. So-called 'solar fuel' devices, currently developed for terrestrial applications in the quest for realizing a sustainable energy economy on Earth, provide promising alternative systems to existing air-revitalization units employed on the International Space Station (ISS) through photoelectrochemical water-splitting and hydrogen production. One obstacle for water (photo-) electrolysis in reduced gravity environments is the absence of buoyancy and the consequential, hindered gas bubble release from the electrode surface. This causes the formation of gas bubble froth layers in proximity to the electrode surface, leading to an increase in ohmic resistance and cell-efficiency loss due to reduced mass transfer of substrates and products to and from the electrode. Recently, we have demonstrated efficient solar hydrogen production in microgravity environment, using an integrated semiconductor-electrocatalyst system with p-type indium phosphide as the light-absorber and a rhodium electrocatalyst. By nanostructuring the electrocatalyst using shadow nanosphere lithography and thereby creating catalytic 'hot spots' on the photoelectrode surface, we could overcome gas bubble coalescence and mass transfer limitations and demonstrated efficient hydrogen production at high current densities in reduced gravitation. Here, the experimental details are described for the preparations of these nanostructured devices and further on, the procedure for their testing in microgravity environment, realized at the Bremen Drop Tower during 9.3 s of free fall.

Efficient solar-hydrogen production has recently been realized on functionalized semiconductor-electrocatalyst systems in a photoelectrochemical half-cell in microgravity environment at the Bremen Drop Tower. Here, we report the experimental procedures for manufacturing the semiconductor-electrocatalyst device, details of the experimental set-up in the drop capsule and the experimental sequence during free fall.

Long-term space flights and cis-lunar research platforms require a sustainable and light life-support hardware which can be reliably employed outside the ...

Hydrogen Production and Utilization in a Membrane Reactor

Industrial hydrogenation consumes ~11 Mt of fossil-derived H2 gas yearly. Our group invented a membrane reactor to bypass the need to use H2 gas for hydrogenation chemistry. The membrane reactor sources hydrogen from water and drives reactions using renewable electricity. In this reactor, a thin piece of Pd separates an electrochemical hydrogen production compartment from a chemical hydrogenation compartment. The Pd in the membrane reactor acts as (i) a hydrogen-selective membrane, (ii) a cathode, and (iii) a catalyst for hydrogenation. Herein, we report the use of atmospheric mass spectrometry (atm-MS) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to demonstrate that an applied electrochemical bias across a Pd membrane enables efficient hydrogenation without direct H2 input in a membrane reactor. With atm-MS, we measured a hydrogen permeation of 73%, which enabled the hydrogenation of propiophenone to propylbenzene with 100% selectivity, as measured by GC-MS. In contrast to conventional electrochemical hydrogenation, which is limited to low concentrations of starting material dissolved in a protic electrolyte, the physical separation of hydrogen production from utilization in the membrane reactor enables hydrogenation in any solvent or at any concentration. The use of high concentrations and a wide range of solvents is particularly important for reactor scalability and future commercialization.

Membrane reactors enable hydrogenation in ambient conditions without direct H2 input. We can track the hydrogen production and utilization in these systems using atmospheric mass spectrometry (atm-MS) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

Industrial hydrogenation consumes ~11 Mt of fossil-derived H2 gas yearly. Our group invented a membrane reactor to bypass the need to use H2 gas for ...

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
The United States consumes a large amount of energy &#8211; the current rate is around 97.5 quadrillion BTUs annually. The vast majority (90%) of this energy comes from non-renewable fuel sources. This energy is used for electricity (39%), transportation (28%), industry (22%), and residential/commercial use (11%). As the world has a limited supply of these non-renewable sources, the United States (among others) is expanding the use of renewable energy sources to meet future energy needs. One of these sources is hydrogen.
Hydrogen is considered a potential renewable fuel source, because it meets many important criteria: it&#8217;s available domestically, it has few harmful pollutants, it&#8217;s energy efficient, and it&#8217;s easy to harness. While hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, it is only found in compound form on Earth. For example, it is combined with oxygen in water as H2O. To be useful as a fuel, it needs to be in the form of H2 gas. Therefore, if hydrogen is to be used as a fuel for cars or other electronics, H2 needs to be made first. Thusly, hydrogen is often called an &#8220;energy carrier&#8221; rather than a &#8220;fuel.&#8221;
Currently, the most popular way to make H2 gas is from fossil fuels, through steam reforming of hydrocarbons or coal gasification. This does not reduce dependence on fossil fuels and is energy intensive. A less-used method is by electrolysis of water. This also requires an energy source, but it can be a renewable source, like wind or solar power. In electrolysis, water (H2O) is split into its component parts, hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2), through an electrochemical reaction. The hydrogen gas made through the process of electrolysis can then be used in a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell, generating an electric current. This electric current can be used to power motors, lights, and other electrical devices.

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
The United States consumes a large amount of energy &#8211; the current ...

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Batteries and Fuel Cells

A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to accommodate various applications, from tiny button batteries such as those that power wristwatches to the very large batteries used to supply backup energy to municipal power grids. Some batteries are designed for single-use applications and cannot be recharged (primary cells), while others are based on conveniently reversible cell reactions that allow recharging by an external power source (secondary cells).
Single-Use (Primary) Batteries
A dry-cell is a common primary battery that uses zinc as both the container and anode (&#8220;&#8211;&#8221; terminal) and a graphite rod as the cathode (&#8220;+&#8221; terminal). The Zn can is filled with an electrolyte paste containing manganese(IV) oxide, zinc(II) chloride, ammonium chloride, and water. A graphite rod is immersed in the electrolyte paste to complete the cell. The spontaneous cell reaction involves:
<img alt="Eq1" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_1.png" style="text-align: center; height: 168px;" />
The voltage (cell potential) of a dry cell is approximately 1.5 V (Ecell ~ 1.5 V). Dry cells are available in various sizes (e.g., D, C, AA, AAA). All sizes of dry cells comprise the same components and exhibit the same voltage, but larger cells contain greater amounts of the redox reactants and therefore are capable of transferring correspondingly greater amounts of charge. Like other galvanic cells, dry cells may be connected in series to yield batteries with greater voltage outputs, if needed.&#160;
Alkaline batteries were designed around the same redox couples as the dry cell. As their name suggests, these types of batteries use alkaline electrolytes, often potassium hydroxide. The reactions are
<img alt="Eq2" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_2.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
An alkaline battery can deliver about three to five times the energy of a dry cell of similar size (Ecell&#160; = +1.43 V). Alkaline batteries are prone to leaking potassium hydroxide, so they should be removed from devices for long-term storage. While some alkaline batteries are rechargeable, most are not.
Rechargeable (Secondary) Batteries
Nickel-cadmium, or NiCd, batteries consist of a nickel-plated cathode, cadmium-plated anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. The positive and negative plates, which are prevented from shorting by the separator, are rolled together and put into the case. This design allows the NiCd cell to deliver much more current than a similar-sized alkaline battery. The reactions are
<img alt="Eq3" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_3.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
When properly treated, a NiCd battery can be recharged about 1000 times ( Ecell ~ 1.3 V). Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal, so NiCd batteries should never be ruptured or incinerated, and they should be disposed of in accordance with relevant toxic waste guidelines.
Lithium-ion batteries are among the most popular rechargeable batteries and are used in many portable electronic devices. The reactions are
<img alt="Eq4" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_4.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
The variable stoichiometry of the cell reaction leads to variation in cell voltages, but for typical conditions, x is usually no more than 0.5,and the cell voltage is approximately 3.7 V (Ecell ~ 3.7). Lithium batteries are popular because they can provide a large amount of current, are lighter than comparable batteries of other types, produce a nearly constant voltage as they discharge, and only slowly lose their charge when stored.
The lead-acid battery is also a type of secondary battery commonly used in automobiles. It is inexpensive and capable of producing the high current required by automobile starter motors. The reactions for a lead-acid battery are
<img alt="Eq5" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_5.png" style="text-align: center; height: 160px;" />
Each cell produces 2 V (Ecell ~ 2 V), so six cells are connected in series to produce a 12-V car battery. Lead-acid batteries are heavy and contain a caustic liquid electrolyte, H2SO4 (aq), but are often still the battery of choice because of their high current density. Since these batteries contain a significant amount of lead, they must always be disposed of properly.
Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell that uses traditional combustive fuels, most often hydrogen or methane, that are continuously fed into the cell along with an oxidant. Within the cell, fuel and oxidant undergo the same redox chemistry as when they are combusted, but via a catalyzed electrochemical that is significantly more efficient. For example, a typical hydrogen fuel cell uses graphite electrodes embedded with platinum-based catalysts to accelerate the two half-cell reactions:
<img alt="Eq6" src="/files/ftp_upload/11439/11439_Equation_6.png" style="text-align: center; height: 130px;" />
These types of fuel cells generally produce voltages of approximately 1.23&#160;V (Ecell ~ 1.23&#160;V). Compared to an internal combustion engine, the energy efficiency of a fuel cell using the same redox reaction is typically more than double (~20%&#8211;25% for an engine versus ~50%&#8211;75% for a fuel cell). Hydrogen fuel cells are commonly used on extended space missions, and prototypes for personal vehicles have been developed.
This text is adapted from <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/17-5-batteries-and-fuel-cells">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 17.5: Batteries, and Fuel Cells.</a>

Batteries Single-use &amp; Rechargeable and Fuel Cells

A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to ...

Membraneless Hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cells as a Promising Clean Energy Source

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