This work was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Townsend Family, and Jack Brown and Family Alzheimer's Research Foundation (to W. S.). W. S. is the holder of the Canada Research Chair in Alzheimer's Disease. P. T.T. L. is supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Counsel and the Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research Scholarship.

1.	Fixation of mouse brains and cryosectioning
<ol>
<li>Transgenic mice are sacrificed using carbon dioxide gas, followed by decapitation and the brain extracted.</li>
<li>The brain is dissected longitudinally at the center. Half of the brain will be flash frozen on dry ice for biochemical analysis. The other will be submerged in 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) for at least 48 hours at 4&deg;C.</li> 
<li>After fixation in 4% PFA for at least 48 hours, the hemi brain is transferred directly into 30% sucrose solution and placed at 4&deg;C. At the point, the hemi brain should be floating in the sucrose solution. When the hemi brain sank to the bottom, usually requiring about 48 hours, it is ready to be embedded in OCT for cryosectioning.</li>
<li>Before cryosectioning, mount a thin layer of OCT on the knob and allow to freeze at -20&deg;C. Remove the cerebellum from the rest of the hemi brain and place onto the layer of frozen OCT. Immediately cover the hemi brain with OCT and allow to slowly freeze at -20&deg;C. Once the OCT embedding the brain has turned opaque, it is ready to be sectioned.</li>
<li>Set the thickness of each section to 30 &mu;m. Collect each slice into a container with D'Olomos solution.</li>
</ol>
2.	Immunohistochemistry procedure for neuritic plaques (free floating sections)
<ol>
<li>Treat each section in 88% formic acid for 15 minutes. After formic acid treatment, the section will temporarily turn opaque and may appear to shrivel.</li>
<li>Remove each section into a plate and wash with Tx-PBS (0.3% Triton X-100 in PBS) for 5 min X 3 with gentle shaking.</li>
<li>Block Endogenous Peroxide blocking 0.5% H2O2 in Tx-PBS, RT 30 min with gentle shaking.</li>
<li>Wash section with Tx-PBS for 10 min X 3 with gentle shaking.</li>
<li>Block section with 5% non-fat skim milk dissolved in Tx-PBS at room temperature for 1 hour with gentle shaking.</li> 
<li>Incubate sections in primary antibody (Biotinylated 4G8, 1:500-1:2000, Signet) diluted in Tx-PBS containing 5% milk at 4&deg;C overnight with gentle shaking.</li>
<li>Wash section with Tx-PBS for 10 min X 3 with gentle shaking.</li>
<li>Prepare ABC solution following manufacturer's protocol (Elite ABC, Vector Laboratories,). Incubate sections in ABC mixture for 30 min with gentle shaking.</li> 
<li>Wash section with Tx-PBS for 10 min X 3 with gentle shaking.</li>
<li>Prepare 3,3'-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride (DAB) (Vector Laboratories) following manufacturer's protocol. Incubate sections in DAB mixture for 5-10 min. At this point, you will observe a brownish color develop on each section.</li>
<li>Wash section with Tx-PBS for 10 min X 3 with gentle shaking.</li>
<li>Free-floating brain sections are mounted on gelatin coated slides, to help with tissue adhesion. Sections are then air dried followed by clearing with a series of xylene and mounted in Entellen.</li>
<li>Plaques are visualized under light microscopy at 40X magnification and are quantified by assessing the mean plaque count per slice for each mouse.</li>
</ol>
3.	Thioflavin S staining procedure for detection of neuritic plaques
<ol>
<li>Mouse sacrifice and brain extraction procedure are as indicated in sections 1.1 to 1.5.</li>
<li>Mount 4 to 5 hemi brain sections onto a glass slide and allow to completely air dry prior to staining.</li> 
<li>Wash slides with 70% Ethanol for 1 minute.</li>
<li>Wash slides with 80% Ethanol for 1 minute.</li>
<li>Incubate slides in filtered (0.2 &mu;m filter) thioflavin S solution (1% in 80% of Ethanol) for 15 minutes. (Thioflavin S solution needs to be filtered before each use). Note: protect thioflavin S from light and protect stained slides from light.</li>
<li>Wash slides with 80% Ethanol for 1 minute.</li>
<li>Wash slides with 70% Ethanol 1 minute.</li>
<li>Wash with distilled water twice.</li>
<li>Mount slides in aqueous mounting media and allow slides to dry in the dark for at least 2 hour, followed by sealing coverslip with clear nail polish. Stained sections should be stored in the dark at 4&deg;C.</li>
<li>The green fluorescence stained plaques could be visualized with fluorescent microscropy. Analyze slides within one week because the staining will fade with time.</li>
</ol>
4. Representative Results
In our recent study on the efficacy of the anti-epileptic drug and mood stabilizer valproic acid (VPA) to inhibit neuritic plaque formation, we used the above described immunostaining and thioflavin S staining procedures to identify neuritic plaques in AD model mice (3). Figure 1 represents a typical 9 month old APP23 transgenic mouse, stained with anti-A&beta; using biotinylated 4G8 and detected via the ABC method. Neuritic plaques are clearly labeled with the antibody and are indicated by the white arrows. Using thioflavin S staining, we detected neuritic plaque deposition 2 month old APP23xPS transgenic mice (Figure 2). Thioflavin S bound A&beta;-containing neuritic plaques appears green under fluorescence microscopy (indicated by white arrows). We showed that with VPA treatment, neuritic plaque formation is significantly reduced (3). In another study, we studied the molecular link underlying hypoxia and AD pathogenesis. Again, using both 4G8 anti-A&beta; immunohistochemistry staining and thioflavin S staining, we found that hypoxia facilitated the formation of A&beta; containing neuritic plaques (4).
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2831/2831fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1"/> 
Figure 1. Immunohistochemical analysis of neuritic plaque formation in AD transgenic mice. APP23 mice at the age of 9 months were sacrificed and were dissected, fixed, and sectioned. Neuritic plaques in the hippocampal were detected using an anti-A&beta; antibody 4G8 and were developed using the ABC and DAB methods. The plaques were visualized by light microscopy with 40X. White arrows point to A&beta; neuritic plaques. 
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2831/2831fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2"/> 
Figure 2. Thioflavin S staining of neuritic plaques in AD modeled mice. APP23xPS45 double transgenic mice at 8 weeks old were sacrificed and were dissected, fixed, and sectioned. Neuritic plagues in the hippocampal are were confirmed using thioflavin S fluorescent staining and visualized by microscopy at 40X magnification. White arrows indicate thioflavin S stained neuritic plaques.

<ol>
	<li>Glenner, G. G., Wong, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alzheimer's+disease:+initial+report+of+the+purification+and+characterization+of+a+novel+cerebrovascular+amyloid+protein.">Alzheimer's disease: initial report of the purification and characterization of a novel cerebrovascular amyloid protein.</a> Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 120, 885-890 (1984).</li><li>Hardy, J., Selkoe, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+amyloid+hypothesis+of+Alzheimer's+disease:+progress+and+problems+on+the+road+to+therapeutics.">The amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease: progress and problems on the road to therapeutics.</a> Science. 297, 353-356 (2002).</li><li>Qing, H., He, G., Ly, P. T., Fox, C. J., Staufenbiel, M., Cai, F., Zhang, Z., Wei, S., Sun, X., Chen, C. H., Zhou, W., Wang, K., Song, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Valproic+acid+inhibits+Abeta+production,+neuritic+plaque+formation,+and+behavioral+deficits+in+Alzheimer's+disease+mouse+models.">Valproic acid inhibits Abeta production, neuritic plaque formation, and behavioral deficits in Alzheimer's disease mouse models.</a> J Exp Med. 205, 2781-2789 (2008).</li><li>Sun, X., He, G., Qing, H., Zhou, W., Dobie, F., Cai, F., Staufenbiel, M., Huang, L. E., Song, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hypoxia+facilitates+Alzheimer's+disease+pathogenesis+by+up-regulating+BACE1+gene+expression.">Hypoxia facilitates Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis by up-regulating BACE1 gene expression.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 103, 18727-18732 (2006).</li></ol>

All experiments were conducted in accordance with The University of British Columbia Animal Care and Use committee and CIHR guidelines.

Immunohistochemistry using the biotinylated labeled 4G8 antibody stains neuritic plaques in AD modeled mice with specificity. The staining outcome allows quantification and comparison of plaque load between different treatment groups. There are several crucial steps that could affect the outcome. Because the hemi brains are not perfused prior to extraction from the skull, care should be used during the extraction process in order to prevent damages to the hemi brain. Moreover, since the hemi brain is passively perfused, we recommend incubating it in 4% PFA for at least 48 hours at 4&deg;C prior to submerging in the 30% sucrose solution. Alternatively, transcardial perfusion could be done prior to extracting the brain. If the brain is fixed properly, it should have a rubbery texture. In the case where the brain is not fixed properly, the sections will easily tear in the D'Olomos solution or during the staining procedures.
The 4G8 monoclonal antibody is reactive to amino acid residues 17-24 of A&beta; and recognized the epitope in the core sequence (VFFAE). Since 4G8 is derived from mouse species, it tends to give a higher background staining. Thus, we chose to incubate the sections at the indicated dilution with considerations to achieving a true signal while minimizing background staining. 
In addition to immunostaining for neuritic plaques detection using the 4G8 antibody, a thioflavin S staining method is also used to identify plaques. Thioflavin S is a homogenous dye mixture that results from methylation of dehydrothiotoluidine with sulfonic acid. Thioflavin S non-selectively binds beta sheet contents of proteins, such as those in amyloid oligomers. Upon binding, thioflavin undergoes a characteristic blue shift of its emission spectrum. Conversely thioflavin S binding to the monomeric forms will not elicit a blue shift and could not be detected with florescent microscope. Thioflavin S staining provides a quick alternative to screen for amyloid as the intensity of fluorescence allows good visualization of small amounts of amyloid deposits. However, one drawback about thioflavin S staining is the lack of specificity. Many other tissue components including containing extensive beta sheets, such as fibrinoids, hyaline, keratin, etc, have a rather affinity for this dye.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P6148-1KG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Polyvinylpyrrolidene</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>PVP40-100G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sucrose</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>S5-3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethylene glycol</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>324558-2L</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tissue-Tek O.C.T. Compound</td><td>Sakura Finetek</td><td>4583</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>88% formic acid</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A118P-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Triton X-100</td><td>ICN Biomedicals</td><td>807426</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>H2O2</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>H-1009</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Biotin Labeled 4G8 Antibody</td><td>Cedarlane Labs</td><td>SIG-39240-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Elite ABC kit</td><td>Vector Laboratories</td><td>PK-6100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Imm PACT DAB</td><td>Vector Laboratories</td><td>SK-4105</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Xylene</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>X4-4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Entellan</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>65037-71</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Superfrost* Plus Microscope Slides</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12-550-15</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cryostat</td><td>Leica Microsystems</td><td>CM-3050-S</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MX35 Premier microtome blade</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.</td><td>3052835</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Thioflavin S</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>T1892-25G</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

detection of neuritic plaques in alzheimer's disease mouse model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder leading to dementia. Neuritic plaque formation is one of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. The central component of neuritic plaques is a small filamentous protein called amyloid &beta; protein (A&beta;)1, which is derived from sequential proteolytic cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) by &beta;-secretase and &gamma;-secretase. The amyloid hypothesis entails that A&gamma;-containing plaques as the underlying toxic mechanism in AD pathology2. The postmortem analysis of the presence of neuritic plaque confirms the diagnosis of AD. To further our understanding of A&gamma; neurobiology in AD pathogenesis, various mouse strains expressing AD-related mutations in the human APP genes were generated. Depending on the severity of the disease, these mice will develop neuritic plaques at different ages. These mice serve as invaluable tools for studying the pathogenesis and drug development that could affect the APP processing pathway and neuritic plaque formation. In this protocol, we employ an immunohistochemical method for specific detection of neuritic plaques in AD model mice. We will specifically discuss the preparation from extracting the half brain, paraformaldehyde fixation, cryosectioning, and two methods to detect neurotic plaques in AD transgenic mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thiofalvin S staining method.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Detection of Neuritic Plaques in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model at JoVE.com

Detection of Neuritic Plaques in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model

One of the pathological characteristics of AD is the formation of Amyloid &#x03B2; protein positive neuritic plaques. In this protocol we describe two methods to detect neuritic plaques in transgenic AD model mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thioflavin S staining method.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder leading to dementia. Neuritic plaque formation is one of the pathological hallmarks ...

detection-of-neuritic-plaques-in-alzheimer-s-disease-mouse-model

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

36.5K Views.  The University of British Columbia. One of the pathological characteristics of AD is the formation of Amyloid β protein positive neuritic plaques. In this protocol we describe two methods to detect neuritic plaques in transgenic AD model mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thioflavin S staining method.

Video: Detection of Neuritic Plaques in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model

Establishment of a Valuable Mimic of Alzheimer's Disease in Rat Animal Model by Intracerebroventricular Injection of Composited Amyloid Beta Protein

Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive brain disease that slowly destroys memory and is accompanied by neuron loss and structure change. With the increase of AD patients worldwide, the pathology and treatment of the disease has become a focus in the International Pharmaceutical Industry. Thus, the establishment of the animal model to mimic AD in the laboratory is of great importance.
Here, we describe a detailed protocol for establishing a mimic of AD in a rat animal model though intracerebroventricular injection of amyloid beta protein 25-35 (A&#946;25-35) combined with aluminum trichloride (AlCl3) and anterodorsal thalamic nucleus injection of recombinant human transforming growth factor-&#946;1 (RHTGF-&#946;1) to rats. The related markers of AD were measured, including: spatial memory, neuronal structure and substructure, neuronal A&#946;, and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) production. This rat model demonstrates spatial memory impairment, neuronal structure and substructure pathological changes, neuron intracellular A&#946; burden, and NFT aggregation, and provides a close mimic of the neuronal structure and function disorder to that of clinical AD patients. Thus, the presented AD rat modelprovides a valuable in vivo tool for exploring neuronal function, neuronal pathology, and drug screening of AD.

This is a protocol to mimic Alzheimer&#39;s Disease in rats by evaluation of spatial memory impairment, neuronal pathological changes, neuronal amyloid beta protein (A&#946;) burden, and neurofibrillary tangles aggregation, induced by the injection of A&#946;25-35 combined with aluminum trichloride and recombinant human transforming growth factor-&#946;1.

Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive brain disease that slowly destroys memory and is accompanied by neuron loss and structure ...

Behavior

A Technique for Serial Collection of Cerebrospinal Fluid from the Cisterna Magna in Mouse 

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that is pathologically characterized by extracellular deposition of &#946;-amyloid peptide (A&#946;) and intraneuronal accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Because cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is in direct contact with the extracellular space of the brain, it provides a reflection of the biochemical changes in the brain in response to pathological processes. CSF from AD patients shows a decrease in the 42 amino-acid form of A&#946; (A&#946;42), and increases in total tau and hyperphosphorylated tau, though the mechanisms responsible for these changes are still not fully understood. Transgenic (Tg) mouse models of AD provide an excellent opportunity to investigate how and why A&#946; or tau levels in CSF change as the disease progresses. Here, we demonstrate a refined cisterna magna puncture technique for CSF sampling from the mouse. This extremely gentle sampling technique allows serial CSF samples to be obtained from the same mouse at 2-3 month intervals which greatly minimizes the confounding effect of between-mouse variability in A&#946; or tau levels, making it possible to detect subtle alterations over time. In combination with A&#946; and tau ELISA, this technique will be useful for studies designed to investigate the relationship between the levels of CSF A&#946;42 and tau, and their metabolism in the brain in AD mouse models. Studies in Tg mice could provide important validation as to the potential of CSF A&#946; or tau levels to be used as biological markers for monitoring disease progression, and to monitor the effect of therapeutic interventions. As the mice can be sacrificed and the brains can be examined for biochemical or histological changes, the mechanisms underlying the CSF changes can be better assessed. These data are likely to be informative for interpretation of human AD CSF changes.

A Technique for Serial Collection of Cerebrospinal Fluid from the Cisterna Magna in Mouse

Transgenic (Tg) mouse models of AD provide an excellent opportunity to investigate how and why A&#946; or tau levels in CSF change as the disease progresses in human patients. Here, we demonstrate a refined cisterna magna puncture technique for serial CSF sampling from the mouse.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that is pathologically characterized by extracellular deposition of &#946;-amyloid ...

Biology

Stereotaxic Infusion of Oligomeric Amyloid-beta into the Mouse Hippocampus

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the over-production of amyloid-beta and the deposition of amyloid-beta plaques in brain regions of the afflicted individuals. Throughout the years scientists have generated numerous Alzheimer&#8217;s disease mouse models that attempt to replicate the amyloid-beta pathology. Unfortunately, the mouse models only selectively mimic the disease features. Neuronal death, a prominent effect in the brains of Alzheimer&#8217;s disease patients, is noticeably lacking in these mice. Hence, we and others have employed a method of directly infusing soluble oligomeric species of amyloid-beta - forms of amyloid-beta that have been proven to be most toxic to neurons - stereotaxically into the brain. In this report we utilize male C57BL/6J mice to document this surgical technique of increasing amyloid-beta levels in a select brain region. The infusion target is the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus because this brain structure, along with the basal forebrain that is connected by the cholinergic circuit, represents one of the areas of degeneration in the disease. The results of elevating amyloid-beta in the dentate gyrus via stereotaxic infusion reveal increases in neuron loss in the dentate gyrus within 1 week, while there is a concomitant increase in cell death and cholinergic neuron loss in the vertical limb of the diagonal band of Broca of the basal forebrain. These effects are observed up to 2 weeks. Our data suggests that the current amyloid-beta infusion model provides an alternative mouse model to address region specific neuron death in a short-term basis. The advantage of this model is that amyloid-beta can be elevated in a spatial and temporal manner.

Here, we present a protocol for direct stereotaxic brain infusion of amyloid-beta. This methodology provides an alternative in vivo mouse model to address the short-term effects of amyloid-beta on brain neurons.

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the ...

Detection of Disease-associated &#945;-synuclein by Enhanced ELISA in the Brain of Transgenic Mice Overexpressing Human A53T Mutated &#945;-synuclein

In addition to established methods like Western blot, new methods are needed to quickly and easily quantify disease-associated &#945;-synuclein (&#945;SD) in experimental models of synucleopathies. A transgenic mouse line (M83) over-expressing the human A53T &#945;S and spontaneously developing a dramatic clinical phenotype between eight and 22 months of age, characterized by symptoms including weight loss, prostration, and severe motor impairment, was used in this study. For molecular analyses of &#945;SD (disease-associated &#945;S) in these mice, an ELISA was designed to specifically quantify &#945;SD in sick mice. Analysis of the central nervous system in this mouse model showed the presence of &#945;SD mainly in the caudal brain regions and the spinal cord. There were no differences in &#945;SD distribution between different experimental conditions leading to clinical disease, i.e., in uninoculated and normally aging transgenic mice and in mice inoculated with brain extracts from sick mice. The specific detection of &#945;SD immunoreactivity using an antibody against Ser129 phosphorylated &#945;S by ELISA essentially correlated with that obtained by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Unexpectedly, similar results were observed with several other antibodies against the C-terminal part of &#945;S. The propagation of &#945;SD, suggesting the involvement of a &#8220;prion-like&#8221; mechanism, can thus be easily monitored and quantified in this mouse model using an ELISA approach.

An ELISA offering a novel quantitative approach is described. It specifically detects disease-associated &#945;-synuclein (&#945;SD) in a transgenic mouse model (M83) of synucleinopathy using several antibodies against either the Ser129 phosphorylated &#945;S form or the C-terminal part of the protein.

In addition to established methods like Western blot, new methods are needed to quickly and easily quantify disease-associated &#945;-synuclein (&#945;SD) ...

Medicine

Intracerebroventricular Injection of Amyloid-&#946; Peptides in Normal Mice to Acutely Induce Alzheimer-like Cognitive Deficits

Amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;) is a major pathological mediator of both familial and sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the brains of AD patients, progressive accumulation of A&#946; oligomers and plaques is observed. Such A&#946; abnormalities are believed to block long-term potentiation, impair synaptic function, and induce cognitive deficits. Clinical and experimental evidences have revealed that the acute increase of A&#946; levels in the brain allows development of Alzheimer-like phenotypes. Hence, a detailed protocol describing how to acutely generate an AD mouse model via the intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of A&#946; is necessary in many cases. In this protocol, the steps of the experiment with an A&#946;-injected mouse are included, from the preparation of peptides to the testing of behavioral abnormalities. The process of preparing the tools and animal subjects before the injection, of injecting the A&#946; into the mouse brain via ICV injection, and of assessing the degree of cognitive impairment are easily explained throughout the protocol, with an emphasis on tips for effective ICV injection of A&#946;. By mimicking certain aspects of AD with a designated injection of A&#946;, researchers can bypass the aging process and focus on the downstream pathology of A&#946; abnormalities.

The amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;)-injected animal model enables the administration of a defined quantity and species of A&#946; fragments and reduces individual differences within each study group. This protocol describes the intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of A&#946; without stereotactic instruments, enabling the production of Alzheimer-like behavioral abnormalities in normal mice.

Amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;) is a major pathological mediator of both familial and sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the brains of AD patients, ...

Correlative Light and Electron Microscopy to Study Microglial Interactions with &#946;-Amyloid Plaques

A detailed protocol is provided here to identify amyloid A&#946; plaques in brain sections from Alzheimer&#39;s disease mouse models before pre-embedding immunostaining (specifically for ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (IBA1), a calcium binding protein expressed by microglia) and tissue processing for electron microscopy (EM). Methoxy-X04 is a fluorescent dye that crosses the blood-brain barrier and selectively binds to &#946;-pleated sheets found in dense core A&#946; plaques. Injection of the animals with methoxy-X04 prior to sacrifice and brain fixation allows pre-screening and selection of the plaque-containing brain sections for further processing with time-consuming manipulations. This is particularly helpful when studying early AD pathology within specific brain regions or layers that may contain very few plaques, present in only a small fraction of the sections. Post-mortem processing of tissue sections with Congo Red, Thioflavin S, and Thioflavin T (or even with methoxy-X04) can label &#946;-pleated sheets, but requires extensive clearing with ethanol to remove excess dye and these procedures are incompatible with ultrastructural preservation. It would also be inefficient to perform labeling for A&#946; (and other cellular markers such as IBA1) on all brain sections from the regions of interest, only to yield a small fraction containing A&#946; plaques at the right location. Importantly, A&#946; plaques are still visible after tissue processing for EM, allowing for a precise identification of the areas (generally down to a few square millimeters) to examine with the electron microscope.

This article describes a protocol for visualizing amyloid A&#946; plaques in Alzheimer&#39;s disease mouse models using methoxy-X04, which crosses the blood-brain barrier and selectively binds to &#946;-pleated sheets found in dense core A&#946; plaques. It allows pre-screening of plaque-containing tissue sections prior to immunostaining and processing for electron microscopy.

A detailed protocol is provided here to identify amyloid A&#946; plaques in brain sections from Alzheimer&#39;s disease mouse models before pre-embedding ...

Using Enzyme-based Biosensors to Measure Tonic and Phasic Glutamate in Alzheimer's Mouse Models

Neurotransmitter disruption is often a key component of diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), playing a role in the pathology underlying Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, depression, and anxiety. Traditionally, microdialysis has been the most common (lauded) technique to examine neurotransmitter changes that occur in these disorders. But because microdialysis has the ability to measure slow 1-20 minute changes across large areas of tissue, it has the disadvantage of invasiveness, potentially destroying intrinsic connections within the brain and a slow sampling capability. A relatively newer technique, the microelectrode array (MEA), has numerous advantages for measuring specific neurotransmitter changes within discrete brain regions as they occur, making for a spatially and temporally precise approach. In addition, using MEAs is minimally invasive, allowing for measurement of neurotransmitter alterations in vivo. In our laboratory, we have been specifically interested in changes in the neurotransmitter, glutamate, related to Alzheimer's disease pathology. As such, the method described here has been used to assess potential hippocampal disruptions in glutamate in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Briefly, the method used involves coating a multi-site microelectrode with an enzyme very selective for the neurotransmitter of interest and using self-referencing sites to subtract out background noise and interferents. After plating and calibration, the MEA can be constructed with a micropipette and lowered into the brain region of interest using a stereotaxic device. Here, the method described involves anesthetizing rTg(TauP301L)4510 mice and using a stereotaxic device to precisely target sub-regions (DG, CA1, and CA3) of the hippocampus.

Here, we describe the setup, software navigation, and data analysis for a spatially and temporally precise method of measuring tonic and phasic extracellular glutamate changes in vivo using enzyme-linked microelectrode arrays (MEA).

Neurotransmitter disruption is often a key component of diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), playing a role in the pathology underlying ...

Quantitative 3D In Silico Modeling (q3DISM) of Cerebral Amyloid-beta Phagocytosis in Rodent Models of Alzheimer's Disease

Neuroinflammation is now recognized as a major etiological factor in neurodegenerative disease. Mononuclear phagocytes are innate immune cells responsible for phagocytosis and clearance of debris and detritus. These cells include CNS-resident macrophages known as microglia, and mononuclear phagocytes infiltrating from the periphery. Light microscopy has generally been used to visualize phagocytosis in rodent or human brain specimens. However, qualitative methods have not provided definitive evidence of in vivo phagocytosis. Here, we describe quantitative 3D in silico modeling (q3DISM), a robust method allowing for true 3D quantitation of amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;) phagocytosis by mononuclear phagocytes in rodent Alzheimer&#39;s Disease (AD) models. The method involves fluorescently visualizing A&#946; encapsulated within phagolysosomes in rodent brain sections. Large z-dimensional confocal datasets are then 3D reconstructed for quantitation of A&#946; spatially colocalized within the phagolysosome. We demonstrate the successful application of q3DISM to mouse and rat brains, but this methodology can be extended to virtually any phagocytic event in any tissue.

Quantitative 3D In Silico Modeling q3DISM of Cerebral Amyloid-beta Phagocytosis in Rodent Models of Alzheimer's Disease

We developed a methodology for quantitative 3D in silico modeling (q3DISM) of cerebral amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;) phagocytosis by mononuclear phagocytes in rodent models of Alzheimer&#39;s disease. This method can be generalized for the quantitation of virtually any phagocytic event in vivo.

Neuroinflammation is now recognized as a major etiological factor in neurodegenerative disease. Mononuclear phagocytes are innate immune cells responsible ...

Assessment of Spontaneous Alternation, Novel Object Recognition and Limb Clasping in Transgenic Mouse Models of Amyloid-&#946; and Tau Neuropathology

Here we describe a staged, behavioral testing approach that can be used to screen for compounds that exhibit in vivo efficacy on cognitive and functional motor behaviors in transgenic mouse models of &#946;-amyloidosis and tauopathy. The paradigm includes tests for spontaneous alternation in a Y-maze, novel object recognition, and limb clasping. These tests were selected because they: 1) interrogate function of cognitive or motor domains and the correlate neural circuitry relevant to the human disease state, 2) have clearly defined endpoints, 3) have easily implementable quality control checks, 4) can be run in a moderate throughput format, and 5) require little intervention by the investigator. These methods are designed for investigators looking to screen compounds for activity in short-term and working memory tasks, or functional motor behaviors associated with Alzheimer's disease mouse models. The methods described here use behavioral tests that engage a number of different brain regions including hippocampus and various cortical areas. Investigators that desire cognitive tests that specifically assess cognition mediated by a single brain region could use these techniques to supplement other behavioral tests.

Described here is a staged, behavioral screening approach that can be used to screen for compounds that exhibit in vivo efficacy on cognitive and functional motor behaviors in transgenic mouse models of &#946;-amyloidosis and tauopathy. These methods are optimized to screen compounds for activity in short-term and working memory tasks.

Here we describe a staged, behavioral testing approach that can be used to screen for compounds that exhibit in vivo efficacy on cognitive and functional ...

Detecting Amyloid-&#946; Accumulation via Immunofluorescent Staining in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that contributes to 60-70% dementia around the world. One of the hallmarks of AD undoubtedly lies on accumulation of amyloid-&#946; (A&#946;) in the brain. A&#946; is produced from the proteolytic cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) by &#946;-secretase and &#947;-secretase. In pathological circumstances, the increased &#946;-cleavage of APP leads to overproduction of A&#946;, which aggregates into A&#946; plaques. Since A&#946; plaques are a characteristic of AD pathology, detecting the amount of A&#946; is very important in AD research. In this protocol, we introduce the immunofluorescent staining method to visualize A&#946; deposition. The mouse model used in our experiments is 5&#215;FAD, which carries five mutations found in human familial AD. The neuropathological and behavioral deficits of 5xFAD mice are well-documented, which makes it a good animal model to study A&#946; pathology. We will introduce the procedure including transcardial perfusion, cryosectioning, immunofluorescent staining and quantification to detect A&#946; accumulation in 5&#215;FAD mice. With this protocol, researchers can investigate A&#946; pathology in an AD mouse model.

In the neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease, one of the most crucial characteristics is the deposition of amyloid-&#946;. In this protocol, we describe the method of immunofluorescent staining in 5&#215;FAD transgenic mouse to detect amyloid-&#946; accumulation in plaques. The process of perfusion, cryosectioning, staining and quantification will be described in detail.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that contributes to 60-70% dementia around the world. One of the hallmarks of AD undoubtedly lies ...

Detection of Neuritic Plaques in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model

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