The authors would like to acknowledge Christopher Green, Bradley Robinson, and Maria Manuela Valladares, for helping with data collection. Funding for EEG equipment was provided by Utah State University&#39;s Office of Research and Graduate Studies Equipment Grant to Kerry Jordan&#39;s Multisensory Cognition Lab. Benjamin Call is supported by a Presidential Doctoral Research Fellowship attained from Utah State University&#39;s School of Graduate Studies for his work with Dr. Wade Goodridge.

<ol>
	<li>Sorby, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Educational+Research+in+Developing+3-D+Spatial+Skills+for+Engineering+Students.">Educational Research in Developing 3-D Spatial Skills for Engineering Students.</a> Int. J. Sci. Educ. 31 (3), 459-480 (2009).</li><li>Wai, J., Lubinski, D., Benbow, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+Ability+for+STEM+Domains:+Aligning+Over+50+Years+of+Cumulative+Psychological+Knowledge+Solidifies+Its+Importance.">Spatial Ability for STEM Domains: Aligning Over 50 Years of Cumulative Psychological Knowledge Solidifies Its Importance.</a> J. Educ. Psychol. 101 (4), 817-835 (2009).</li><li>Uttal, D. H., Cohen, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+Thinking+and+STEM+Education:+When,+Why,+and+How?.">Spatial Thinking and STEM Education: When, Why, and How?.</a> Psychol. Learn. Motiv. 57, 147-181 (2012).</li><li>Halpern, D. F., Collaer, M. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Cambridge handbook of visuospatial thinking. , (2005).</li><li>Lubinski, D., Benbow, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Study+of+mathematically+precocious+youth+after+35+years.">Study of mathematically precocious youth after 35 years.</a> Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 1 (4), 316-345 (2006).</li><li>Sorby, S., Casey, B., Veurink, N., Dulaney, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+spatial+training+in+improving+spatial+and+calculus+performance+in+engineering+students.">The role of spatial training in improving spatial and calculus performance in engineering students.</a> Learn. Individ. Differ. 26, 20-29 (2013).</li><li>Peters, M., Chisholm, P., Laeng, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+ability,+student+gender,+and+academic+performance.">Spatial ability, student gender, and academic performance.</a> J. Eng. Educ. 84 (1), 1-5 (1994).</li><li>Pellegrino, J. W., Alderton, D. L., Shute, V. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Understanding+Spatial+Ability.">Understanding Spatial Ability.</a> Educ. Psychol. 19 (3), 239-253 (1984).</li><li>Goodridge, W., Villanueva, I., Wan, N. J., Call, B. J., Valladares, M. M., Robinson, B. S., Jordan, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+efficiency+similarities+between+engineering+students+solving+statics+and+spatial+ability+problems.">Neural efficiency similarities between engineering students solving statics and spatial ability problems.</a> Poster presented at the meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. , (2014).</li><li>Sorby, S. A., Baartmans, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Development+and+Assessment+of+a+Course+for+Enhancing+the+3-D+Spatial+Visualization+Skills+of+First+Year+Engineering+Students.">The Development and Assessment of a Course for Enhancing the 3-D Spatial Visualization Skills of First Year Engineering Students.</a> J. Eng. Educ. 89 (3), 301-307 (2000).</li><li>Gorska, R., Sorby, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Testing+instruments+for+the+assessment+of+3-D+spatial+skills.">Testing instruments for the assessment of 3-D spatial skills.</a> Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference. , (2008).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> CEEB Special aptitude test in spatial relations. , (1939).</li><li>Guay, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Purdue spatial visualization test. , (1976).</li><li>Hegarty, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Components of Spatial Intelligence. , (2010).</li><li>Bishop, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developing+Students'+Spatial+Ability.">Developing Students' Spatial Ability.</a> Sci. Teacher. 45 (8), 20-23 (1978).</li><li>Goodridge, W. H., Villanueva, I., Call, B. J., Valladares, M. M., Wan, N., Green, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cognitive+strategies+and+misconceptions+in+introductory+Statics+problems.">Cognitive strategies and misconceptions in introductory Statics problems.</a> 2014 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) Proceedings. , 2152-2159 (2014).</li><li>Steif, P. S., Dantzler, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Statics+Concept+Inventory:+Development+and+Psychometric+Analysis.">A Statics Concept Inventory: Development and Psychometric Analysis.</a> J. Eng. Educ. 94 (4), 363-371 (2005).</li><li>Suresh, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+relationship+between+barrier+courses+and+persistence+in+engineering.">The relationship between barrier courses and persistence in engineering.</a> J. Coll. Student Retention. 8 (2), 215-239 (2006).</li><li>Pfurtscheller, G., Lopes da Silva, F. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Event-related+EEG/MEG+synchronization+and+desynchronization:+basic+principles.">Event-related EEG/MEG synchronization and desynchronization: basic principles.</a> Clin. Neurophysiol. 110 (11), 1842-1857 (1999).</li><li>Klimesch, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EEG+alpha+and+theta+oscillations+reflect+cognitive+and+memory+performance:+a+review+and+analysis.">EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: a review and analysis.</a> Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 29 (2-3), 169-195 (1999).</li><li>Babiloni, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resting+state+cortical+rhythms+in+athletes:+a+high-resolution+EEG+study.">Resting state cortical rhythms in athletes: a high-resolution EEG study.</a> Brain Res. Bull. 81 (1), 149-156 (2010).</li><li>Babiloni, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=34;Neural+efficiency&amp;#34;+of+experts'+brain+during+judgment+of+actions:+a+high-resolution+EEG+study+in+elite+and+amateur+karate+athletes.">34;Neural efficiency&amp;#34; of experts' brain during judgment of actions: a high-resolution EEG study in elite and amateur karate athletes.</a> Behav. Brain Res. 207 (2), 466-475 (2010).</li><li>Del Percio, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=&#34;Neural+efficiency&#34;+of+athletes'+brain+for+upright+standing:+a+high-resolution+EEG+study.">&#34;Neural efficiency&#34; of athletes' brain for upright standing: a high-resolution EEG study.</a> Brain Res. Bull. 79 (3-4), 193-200 (2009).</li><li>Grabner, R. H., Fink, A., Stipacek, A., Neuper, C., Neubauer, A. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intelligence+and+working+memory+systems:+evidence+of+neural+efficiency+in+alpha+band+ERD.">Intelligence and working memory systems: evidence of neural efficiency in alpha band ERD.</a> Brain Res. Cognitive Brain Res. 20 (2), 212-225 (2004).</li><li>Grabner, R. H., Neubauer, A. C., Stern, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Superior+performance+and+neural+efficiency:+the+impact+of+intelligence+and+expertise.">Superior performance and neural efficiency: the impact of intelligence and expertise.</a> Brain Res. Bull. 69 (4), 422-439 (2006).</li><li>Grabner, R. H., Stern, E., Neubauer, A. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=When+intelligence+loses+its+impact+neural+efficiency+during+reasoning+in+a+familiar+area.">When intelligence loses its impact neural efficiency during reasoning in a familiar area.</a> Int. J. Psychophysiol. 49, 89-98 (2003).</li><li>Neubauer, A. C., Grabner, R. H., Fink, A., Neuper, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intelligence+and+neural+efficiency:+Further+evidence+of+the+influence+of+task+content+and+sex+on+the+brain-IQ+relationship.">Intelligence and neural efficiency: Further evidence of the influence of task content and sex on the brain-IQ relationship.</a> Cognitive Brain Res. 25 (1), 217-225 (2005).</li><li>Riecansk&#253;, I., Katina, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induced+EEG+alpha+oscillations+are+related+to+mental+rotation+ability:+The+evidence+for+neural+efficiency+and+serial+processing.">Induced EEG alpha oscillations are related to mental rotation ability: The evidence for neural efficiency and serial processing.</a> Neurosci. Lett. 482 (2), 133-136 (2010).</li><li>Roberts, J. E., Ann Bell, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-+and+three-dimensional+mental+rotation+tasks+lead+to+different+parietal+laterality+for+men+and+women.">Two- and three-dimensional mental rotation tasks lead to different parietal laterality for men and women.</a> Int. J. Psychophysiol. 50 (3), 235-246 (2003).</li><li>Roberts, J. E., Bell, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+age+and+sex+on+mental+rotation+performance,+verbal+performance,+and+brain+electrical+activity.">The effects of age and sex on mental rotation performance, verbal performance, and brain electrical activity.</a> Dev. Psychobiol. 40 (4), 391-407 (2002).</li><li>Gill, H. S., O'Boyle, M. W., Hathaway, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cortical+distribution+of+EEG+activity+for+component+processes+during+mental+rotation.">Cortical distribution of EEG activity for component processes during mental rotation.</a> Cortex. 34 (5), 707-718 (1998).</li><li>Caplan, J. B., Madsen, J. R., Schulze-Bonhage, A., Aschenbrenner-Scheibe, R., Newman, E. L., Kahana, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+Theta+Oscillations+Related+to+Sensorimotor+Integration+and+Spatial+Learning.">Human Theta Oscillations Related to Sensorimotor Integration and Spatial Learning.</a> The J. Neurosci. 23 (11), 4726-4736 (2003).</li><li>Kahana, M., Sekuler, R., Caplan, J., Kirschen, M., Madsen, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+theta+oscillations+exhibit+task+dependence+during+virtual+maze+navigation.">Human theta oscillations exhibit task dependence during virtual maze navigation.</a> Nature. 399 (6738), 781-784 (1999).</li><li>Delorme, A., Makeig, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EEGLAB:+An+open+source+toolbox+for+analysis+of+single-trial+EEG+dynamics+including+independent+component+analysis.">EEGLAB: An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis.</a> J. Neurosci. Meth. 134, 9-21 (2004).</li><li>Delorme, A., Sejnowski, T., Makeig, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhanced+detection+of+artifacts+in+EEG+data+using+higher-order+statistics+and+independent+component+analysis.">Enhanced detection of artifacts in EEG data using higher-order statistics and independent component analysis.</a> NeuroImage. 34, 1443-1449 (2007).</li><li>Meyer-Lindenberg, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=From+maps+to+mechanisms+through+neuroimaging+of+schizophrenia.">From maps to mechanisms through neuroimaging of schizophrenia.</a> Nature. 468, 194-202 (2010).</li><li>Campbell, S. R., Patten, K. E., Campbell, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Educational+Neuroscience:+Motivations,+methodology,+and+implications.">Educational Neuroscience: Motivations, methodology, and implications.</a> Educ. Neurosci.: Initiatives and Emerging Issues. 43 (1), 7-16 (2011).</li><li>Kelly, A. E., Patten, K. E., Campbell, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Can+Cognitive+Neuroscience+Ground+a+Science+of+Learning?.">Can Cognitive Neuroscience Ground a Science of Learning?.</a> Educ. Neurosci.: Initiatives and Emerging Issues. 43 (1), 17-23 (2011).</li><li>Cunningham, M. D., Murphy, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+bilateral+EEG+biofeedback+on+verbal,+visual-spatial,+and+creative+skills+in+learning+disabled+male+adolescents.">The effects of bilateral EEG biofeedback on verbal, visual-spatial, and creative skills in learning disabled male adolescents.</a> J. Learn. Disabil. 14 (4), 204-208 (1981).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no conflicting or competing financial interests.

The protocol discusses the application of electroencephalography to measure brain activity for participants working problems from two typical spatial ability instruments and highly spatial engineering Statics problems. The methods detailed here may ultimately be able to help understand the neural efficiency of high and low performers engaged in working these problems. It is vital to understand any differences in neural efficiencies of engineering students working on the MCT and PSVT:R, as these tests are often used to as...

Spatial ability is vital to Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields and education and correlates with success in these areas1,2,3. Therefore, it is important to understand the development of how spatial ability impacts problem solving4. Spatial ability has been linked to interest5, performance6, success in engineering academics7 and success in engineering professionals8. However, there is not a lot of work indicating specific neural processes in solving problems typical to many spatial ability instruments, nor specific engineering content that is highly spatial.
This paper provides an introduction to methods used for data collection and analysis of spatial ability instrument scores combined with neural measurements. The intent of publishing with JoVE is to make these methods more accessible to a broader audience. General public hardware and software were utilized in this study. As a methods paper, full results/data sets are not reported, nor are multiple samples provided. All images were captured specifically for this publication. The methods detailed below were utilized in preparing a preliminary conference report9 based on data from eight college sophomore-aged participants, three of whom were female.
Many existing instruments are used to indicate levels of spatial ability inherent to or learned by individuals. Two valid and reliable10,11 instruments that are commonly used are the Mental Cutting Test (MCT)12 and the Purdue Spatial Visualization test of Rotations (PSVT:R)13. While originally occupationally designed14 these instruments test different stages of spatial visualization development described by Piagetian theory10,15. The use of these instruments creates a need to understand the underlying physiological cognitive phenomena existing when individuals work through these problems. For this reason, this study aims to showcase methods utilizing empirical physiological data that may ultimately improve the analysis and understanding of spatial thought, verify existing metrics testing capabilities, and increase the applicability of spatial assessments to more complex problems typical to engineering education. Many of these problems can be encountered in engineering Statics.
Statics is a foundational mechanics course delivered to most engineering students (e.g., Biological, Mechanical, Civil, Environmental, Aerospace Engineering)16,17. It is one of the first extensive problem solving experiences that students are given in core engineering content18. Statics involves the study of the interaction of forces on a rigid body that is at rest or moving at a constant velocity. Unfortunately Statics has high dropout, withdrawal, and failure rates (14% as seen in the investigated University) and this may be related to traditional lecture and curriculum delivery models that omit key avenues of support such as spatially enhanced approaches to education. For example, spatially enhanced approaches in Statics can target the visualization of how forces interact outside of typical analytical analysis and reinforce students&#39; procedural knowledge with grounded conceptualization. The effectiveness of such interventions needs to be investigated from a cognitive neuroscientific perspective.
Electroencephalography (EEG) presents a unique and mobile method of measuring students&#39; brainwave activity. Individuals performing tasks who elicit beta activation are generally very engaged with the task specifics and are attentive to what they are doing19,20. As task demands increase, the amplitude of the beta wave increases, as does the size of the cortical area the bandwidth frequencies occupy. The more neurons that fire within the beta frequency range (alpha: 8 - 12 Hz, beta: 12 - 24Hz) can be defined as greater beta power. Relatedly, as one becomes more experienced in a task, the amplitude of beta waves decreases, generating less beta power. This is part of the neural efficiency hypothesis21-28, in which greater task experience when performing a task is related to a decrease in frequency power. Although EEG has previously been used in the study of spatial abilities (often for mental rotation and spatial navigation tasks) &#8212; and applicable data have been identified in the alpha, beta, and theta bands27-33 &#8212; alpha and beta bands were observed for this study, and beta was selected for further representative analysis in this paper and in the preliminary conference report9. The procedures defined below thus focus on beta band analysis, but an investigation into all three bands, depending on the logged data, is recommended in the future.
The neural efficiency hypothesis has been tested on various tasks, including chess, visuospatial memory, balancing, and resting. All have indicated task experience as a factor in decreased frequency power when performing familiar tasks. One particular study25 has presented evidence that, although the intelligence of a person (as measured by IQ) can help the individual acquire the skills to perform a task, experience with the task outweighs intelligence in its contribution to neural efficiency. In other words, the more experienced an individual is, the more neurally efficient he or she becomes.
Existing neural efficiency studies involving spatial ability have primarily focused on spatial rotation, and different problem sets have been used to compare different populations (e.g., male/female)27-28. EEG studies of spatial ability tasks have also provided insight by comparing performance to other task types (e.g., verbal tasks)27,29,30. The methods discussed in this paper focus on and compare problems from the MCT, PSVT:R, as well as static equilibrium tasks, which are related to spatial ability but are not limited to spatial rotation and navigation. Other spatial tasks may be used in place of the ones given as examples in this manuscript. In this way, additional insight may be obtained in the future regarding different populations (e.g., male/female or expert/novice) to ultimately help improve engineering educational practices.
In an effort to investigate spatial ability and engineering aptitude, we have developed a protocol utilizing EEG measurements to identify the beta wave activations of low performing to high performing participants during a limited battery of specific spatial and engineering tasks. In this case, the term high performer is related to the performance of the participant, and is not reflective of the amount of time spent in the field by the learner, as all participants were at approximately the same point in their education. Additionally, the problem set involved is quite specific and basic; thus the terms &#34;expert&#34; or &#34;high performing&#34; herein must not be viewed in the sense of an expert, professionally employed engineer, but representing only high performance in this narrow slice of engineering mechanics curriculum and spatial ability instruments. The neural measurements can also be used to identify any gross trends for which task types may recruit more cognitive resources than others, with possible interpretation regarding levels of difficulty. This information may potentially provide insight into future assessment and intervention with regard to spatial ability. Other future insight may be derived by considering more specific regions of the brain, which was not possible in this study due to the limited number of channels available in the EEG hardware used.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Emotiv EPOC Model 1.0</td>
			<td>Emotiv</td>
			<td>Model: Emotiv Premium</td>
			<td>&#34;High resolution, multi-channel, portable EEG system.&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Emotiv Control Panel (software)</td>
			<td>Emotiv</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used for data collection.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Emotiv Testbench (software)</td>
			<td>Emotiv</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used for data collection.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Virtual Serial Port Emulator - VSPE (software)</td>
			<td>ETERLOGIC.COM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used COM10 in data collection. Available as a free download, depending on the operating system.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E-Prime 2.0 (software)</td>
			<td>Psychology Software Tools</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used for data collection (presentation of problems to participants and collection of markers for different phases).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EEGLab 13.4.4b (software)</td>
			<td>Swartz Center for Computational Neuroscience (SCCN)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used for data analysis. &#34;An open source environment for electrophysiological signal processing&#34;. SCCN is a Center of the Institute for Neural Computation, the University of California San Diego.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MATLAB R2014b</td>
			<td>The Mathworks, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used to run EEGLab</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsoft Excel 2013</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used to assemble and compare tabulated results from EEGLab &#38; MATLAB, to create tables</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camcorder with built in Mic</td>
			<td>Canon</td>
			<td>CNVHFR50</td>
			<td>Used to record sessions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe Kit (5cc syringe &#38; 2 16g blunted needles)</td>
			<td>Electro-Cap Intnl. Inc.</td>
			<td>E7</td>
			<td>For keeping the EEG cap&#39;s felts damp.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nuprep EEG Skin Prep Gel</td>
			<td>Weaver and Company</td>
			<td>10-30</td>
			<td>For cleaning the mastoid process.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sanitizer</td>
			<td>Purell</td>
			<td>S-12808</td>
			<td>For sanitizing hands</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

utilizing electroencephalography measurements for comparison of task-specific neural efficiencies: spatial intelligence tasks

Spatial intelligence is often linked to success in engineering education and engineering professions. The use of electroencephalography enables comparative calculation of individuals&#39; neural efficiency as they perform successive tasks requiring spatial ability to derive solutions. Neural efficiency here is defined as having less beta activation, and therefore expending fewer neural resources, to perform a task in comparison to other groups or other tasks. For inter-task comparisons of tasks with similar durations, these measurements may enable a comparison of task type difficulty. For intra-participant and inter-participant comparisons, these measurements provide potential insight into the participant&#39;s level of spatial ability and different engineering problem solving tasks. Performance on the selected tasks can be analyzed and correlated with beta activities. This work presents a detailed research protocol studying the neural efficiency of students engaged in the solving of typical spatial ability and Statics problems. Students completed problems specific to the Mental Cutting Test (MCT), Purdue Spatial Visualization test of Rotations (PSVT:R), and Statics. While engaged in solving these problems, participants&#39; brain waves were measured with EEG allowing data to be collected regarding alpha and beta brain wave activation and use. The work looks to correlate functional performance on pure spatial tasks with spatially intensive engineering tasks to identify the pathways to successful performance in engineering and the resulting improvements in engineering education that may follow.

In this section, the preceding steps are illustrated with sample figures as described below. Full data summaries with statistical tests are not provided, as the objective of this paper is to focus on methods. Examples of potential PSVT:R, MCT, and Spatial problems are given in Figure 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3, respectively.
The EEG cap will collect brain activation via electrical potentials for each given channel, which can be viewed in parallel as shown in Figure 7. ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Utilizing Electroencephalography Measurements for Comparison of Task-Specific Neural Efficiencies: Spatial Intelligence Tasks at JoVE.com

Utilizing Electroencephalography Measurements for Comparison of Task-Specific Neural Efficiencies: Spatial Intelligence Tasks

This manuscript describes an approach to measure neural activity of humans while solving spatially focused engineering problems. The electroencephalogram methodology helps interpret beta brain wave measurements in terms of neural efficiency, with the aim of ultimately enabling comparisons of task performance both between problem types and between participants.

Spatial intelligence is often linked to success in engineering education and engineering professions. The use of electroencephalography enables ...

utilizing-electroencephalography-measurements-for-comparison-task

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Introduction to Psychology

Behavior

Unit 1

Thinking, Language And Intelligence

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

11.3K Views.  Utah State University. This manuscript describes an approach to measure neural activity of humans while solving spatially focused engineering problems. The electroencephalogram methodology helps interpret beta brain wave measurements in terms of neural efficiency, with the aim of ultimately enabling comparisons of task performance both between problem types and between participants.

Video: Utilizing Electroencephalography Measurements for Comparison of Task-Specific Neural Efficiencies: Spatial Intelligence Tasks

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography (EEG), Electromyography (EMG), and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Recent studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal human walking. Part of this evidence encompasses studies, including our previous work, demonstrating that gait kinematics and limb coordination during treadmill walking can be inferred from the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) with reasonably high decoding accuracies. These results provide impetus for development of non-invasive brain-machine-interface (BMI) systems for use in restoration and/or augmentation of gait- a primary goal of rehabilitation research. To date, studies examining EEG decoding of activity during gait have been limited to treadmill walking in a controlled environment. However, to be practically viable a BMI system must be applicable for use in everyday locomotor tasks such as over ground walking and turning. Here, we present a novel protocol for non-invasive collection of brain activity (EEG), muscle activity (electromyography (EMG)), and whole-body kinematic data (head, torso, and limb trajectories) during both treadmill and over ground walking tasks. By collecting these data in the uncontrolled environment insight can be gained regarding the feasibility of decoding unconstrained gait and surface EMG from scalp EEG.

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography EEG, Electromyography EMG, and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Development of an effective brain-machine-interface (BMI) system for restoration and rehabilitation of bipedal locomotion requires accurate decoding of user's intent. Here we present a novel experimental protocol and data collection technique for simultaneous non-invasive acquisition of neural activity, muscle activity, and whole-body kinematics during various locomotion tasks and conditions.

Recent  studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal  human walking. Part of this evidence  encompasses studies, ...

Automated Visual Cognitive Tasks for Recording Neural Activity Using a Floor Projection Maze

Neuropsychological tasks used in primates to investigate mechanisms of learning and memory are typically visually guided cognitive tasks. We have developed visual cognitive tasks for rats using the Floor Projection Maze1,2&#160;that are optimized for visual abilities of rats permitting stronger comparisons of experimental findings with other species.
In order to investigate neural correlates of learning and memory, we have integrated electrophysiological recordings into fully automated cognitive tasks on the Floor Projection Maze1,2. Behavioral software interfaced with an animal tracking system allows monitoring of the animal's behavior with precise control of image presentation and reward contingencies for better trained animals. Integration with an in vivo electrophysiological recording system enables examination of behavioral correlates of neural activity at selected epochs of a given cognitive task.
We describe protocols for a model system that combines automated visual presentation of information to rodents and intracranial reward with electrophysiological approaches. Our model system offers a sophisticated set of tools as a framework for other cognitive tasks to better isolate and identify specific mechanisms contributing to particular cognitive processes.

We describe protocols for training rats for chronic electrophysiological recordings in fully automated cognitive tasks on a Floor Projection Maze.

Neuropsychological tasks used in primates to investigate mechanisms of learning and memory are typically visually guided cognitive tasks. We have ...

Uncovering Beat Deafness: Detecting Rhythm Disorders with Synchronized Finger Tapping and Perceptual Timing Tasks

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here with the goal of uncovering rhythm disorders, such as beat deafness. Beat deafness is characterized by poor performance in perceiving durations in auditory rhythmic patterns or poor synchronization of movement with auditory rhythms (e.g., with musical beats). These tasks include the synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of simple and complex auditory stimuli and the detection of rhythmic irregularities (anisochrony detection task) embedded in the same stimuli. These tests, which are easy to administer, include an assessment of both perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities under different conditions (e.g., beat rates and types of auditory material) and are based on the same auditory stimuli, ranging from a simple metronome to a complex musical excerpt. The analysis of synchronized tapping data is performed with circular statistics, which provide reliable measures of synchronization accuracy (e.g., the difference between the timing of the taps and the timing of the pacing stimuli) and consistency. Circular statistics on tapping data are particularly well-suited for detecting individual differences in the general population. Synchronized tapping and anisochrony detection are sensitive measures for identifying profiles of rhythm disorders and have been used with success to uncover cases of poor synchronization with spared perceptual timing. This systematic assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing can be extended to populations of patients with brain damage, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson&#8217;s disease), and developmental disorders (e.g., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).

Behavioral tasks that allow for the assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) are presented. Synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of an auditory stimuli and detecting rhythmic irregularities provides a means of uncovering rhythm disorders.

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here ...

Performing Behavioral Tasks in Subjects with Intracranial Electrodes

Patients having stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) electrode, subdural grid or depth electrode implants have a multitude of electrodes implanted in different areas of their brain for the localization of their seizure focus and eloquent areas. After implantation, the patient must remain in the hospital until the pathological area of brain is found and possibly resected. During this time, these patients offer a unique opportunity to the research community because any number of behavioral paradigms can be performed to uncover the neural correlates that guide behavior. Here we present a method for recording brain activity from intracranial implants as subjects perform a behavioral task designed to assess decision-making and reward encoding. All electrophysiological data from the intracranial electrodes are recorded during the behavioral task, allowing for the examination of the many brain areas involved in a single function at time scales relevant to behavior. Moreover, and unlike animal studies, human patients can learn a wide variety of behavioral tasks quickly, allowing for the ability to perform more than one task in the same subject or for performing controls. Despite the many advantages of this technique for understanding human brain function, there are also methodological limitations that we discuss, including environmental factors, analgesic effects, time constraints and recordings from diseased tissue. This method may be easily implemented by any institution that performs intracranial assessments; providing the opportunity to directly examine human brain function during behavior.

Patients implanted with intracranial electrodes provide a unique opportunity to record neurological data from multiple areas of the brain while the patient performs behavioral tasks. Here, we present a method of recording from implanted patients that can be reproducible at other institutions with access to this patient population.

Patients having stereo-electroencephalography (SEEG) electrode, subdural grid or depth electrode implants have a multitude of electrodes implanted in ...

Practical Methodology of Cognitive Tasks Within a Navigational Assessment

This paper describes an approach for measuring navigation accuracy relative to cognitive skills. The methodology behind the assessment will thus be clearly outlined in a step-by-step manner. Navigational skills are important when trying to find symbols within a speech-generating device (SGD) that has a dynamic screen and taxonomical organization. The following skills have been found to impact children&#8217;s ability to find symbols when navigating within the levels of an SGD: sustained attention, categorization, cognitive flexibility, and fluid reasoning1,2. According to past studies, working memory was not correlated with navigation1,2.
The materials needed for this method include a computerized tablet, an augmentative and alternative communication application, a booklet of symbols, and the Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Leiter-R)3. This method has been used in two previous studies. Robillard, Mayer-Crittenden, Roy-Charland, Minor-Corriveau and B&#233;langer1 assessed typically developing children, while Rondeau, Robillard and Roy-Charland2 assessed children and adolescents with a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder. The direct observation of this method will facilitate the replication of this study for researchers. It will also help clinicians that work with children who have complex communication needs to determine the children&#8217;s ability to navigate an SGD with taxonomical categorization.

Children who have complex communication needs can benefit from the use of a speech-generating device (SGD). Cognitive skills were identified as having an impact on the ability to navigate between levels of SGDs. This protocol describes the steps needed for Speech-language Pathologists to assess cognitive skills and navigational abilities.

This paper describes an approach for measuring navigation accuracy relative to cognitive skills. The methodology behind the assessment will thus be ...

Using the Activity-based Anorexia Rodent Model to Study the Neurobiological Basis of Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a psychiatric illness characterized by excessively restricted caloric intake and abnormally high levels of physical activity. A challenging illness to treat, due to the lack of understanding of the underlying neurobiology, AN has the highest mortality rate among psychiatric illnesses. To address this need, neuroscientists are using an animal model to study how neural circuits may contribute toward vulnerability to AN and may be affected by AN. Activity-based anorexia (ABA) is a bio-behavioral phenomenon described in rodents that models the key symptoms of anorexia nervosa. When rodents with free access to voluntary exercise on a running wheel experience food restriction, they become hyperactive &#8211; running more than animals with free access to food. Here, we describe the procedures by which ABA is induced in adolescent female C57BL/6 mice. On postnatal day 36 (P36), the animal is housed with access to voluntary exercise on a running wheel. After 4 days of acclimation to the running wheel, on P40, all food is removed from the cage. For the next 3 days, food is returned to the cage (allowing animals free food access) for 2 hr daily. After the fourth day of food restriction, free access to food is returned and the running wheel is removed from the cage to allow the animals to recover. Continuous multi-day analysis of running wheel activity shows that mice become hyperactive within 24 hr following the onset of food restriction. The mice run even during the limited time during which they have access to food. Additionally, the circadian pattern of wheel running becomes disrupted by the experience of food restriction. We have been able to correlate neurobiological changes with various aspects of the animals&#8217; wheel running behavior to implicate particular brain regions and neurochemical changes with resilience and vulnerability to food-restriction induced hyperactivity.

Here we present a protocol to induce activity-based anorexia (ABA) in female adolescent mice. ABA is a condition of hyperactivity evoked by imposing food restriction on rodents with access to a running wheel. This phenomenon is being used as a model to study the underlying neurobiology of anorexia nervosa.

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a psychiatric illness characterized by excessively restricted caloric intake and abnormally high levels of physical activity. A ...

Using Laser Doppler Imaging and Monitoring to Analyze Spinal Cord Microcirculation in Rat

Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) is a noninvasive method for blood flow (BF) measurement, which makes it preferable for measuring microcirculatory alterations of the spinal cord. In this article, our goal was to use both Laser Doppler imaging and monitoring to analyze the change of BF after spinal cord injury. Both the laser Doppler image scanner and the probe/monitor were being employed to obtain each readout. The data of LDPI provided a local distribution of BF, which gave an overview of perfusion around the injury site and made it accessible for comparative analysis of BF among different locations. By intensely measuring the probing area over a period of time, a combined probe was used to simultaneously measure the BF and oxygen saturation of the spinal cord, showing overall spinal cord perfusion and oxygen supply. LDF itself has a few limitations, such as relative flux, sensitivity to movement, and biological zero signal. However, the technology has been applied in clinical and experimental study due to its simple setup and rapid measurement of BF.

Here we present a combination of laser Doppler perfusion imaging (LDPI) and laser Doppler perfusion monitoring (LDPM) to measure spinal cord local blood flows and oxygen saturation (SO2), as well as a standardized procedure for introducing spinal cord trauma on rat.

Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) is a noninvasive method for blood flow (BF) measurement, which makes it preferable for measuring microcirculatory ...

A Behavioral Assay for Investigating the Role of Spatial Memory During Instinctive Defense in Mice

Evolution has selected a repertoire of defensive behaviors that are essential for survival across all animal species. These behaviors are often stereotyped actions elicited in response to innately aversive sensory stimuli, but their success requires enough flexibility for adapting to different spatial environments, which can change rapidly. Here, we describe a behavioral assay to evaluate the influence of learned spatial knowledge on defensive behaviors in mice. We have adapted the widely used Barnes maze spatial memory assay to investigate how mice navigate to a shelter during escape responses to innately aversive sensory stimuli in a novel environment, and how they adapt to acute changes in the environment. This new assay is an ethological paradigm that does not require training and exploits the natural exploration patterns and navigation strategies in mice. We propose that the set of protocols described here are a powerful means of studying goal-directed behaviors and stimulus-triggered navigation, which should be of interest to both the fields of instinctive behaviors and spatial memory.

This protocol describes a behavioral assay, based on the Barnes maze test, to study how instinctive defensive actions are modified by the knowledge of spatial environment.

Evolution has selected a repertoire of defensive behaviors that are essential for survival across all animal species. These behaviors are often ...

Using Electroencephalography Measurements and High-quality Video Recording for Analyzing Visual Perception of Media Content

This article explores a method to detect differences in visual perception in humans. The method used is based on the psychological (or "cognitive") function of eyeblinks. Participants' eyeblinks are detected and acquired while watching videos specifically created for the investigation. The detection and acquisition of eyeblinks are carried out with the help of a 20-channel electroencephalographic (EEG) wireless device. The international 10-20 system for electrode placement is followed. A high-definition (HD) video camera is used to record participants' facial expressions, for contrast purposes. Instead of using pre-existing media content, purpose-made video content has been created following specific criteria of interest for this investigation, with stimuli enabling researchers to manage the precise parameters of interest. Otherwise, results could be contaminated with uncontrolled variables. The synchronization of the presentation of video stimuli with EEG recordings needs to be done in milliseconds. Analysis of collected data is performed with robust software for working with big matrices. Statistically significant differences in eyeblink rate related to media professionalization and editing style are found with the reported experimental procedures.

We present detection, acquisition, and analysis of eyeblink rates while watching media content.

This article explores a method to detect differences in visual perception in humans. The method used is based on the psychological (or "cognitive") ...

Utilizing a Reconfigurable Maze System to Enhance the Reproducibility of Spatial Navigation Tests in Rodents

Several maze shapes are used to test spatial navigation performance and behavioral phenotypes. Traditionally, each experiment requires a unique maze shape, thus requiring several separate mazes in different configurations. The maze geometry cannot be reconfigured in a single environment to accommodate scalability and reproducibility. The reconfigurable maze is a unique approach to address the limitations, allowing quick and flexible configurations of maze pathways in a repeatable manner. It consists of interlocking pathways and includes feeders, treadmills, movable walls, and shut-off sensors. The current protocol describes how the reconfigurable maze can replicate existing mazes, including the T-shaped, plus-shaped, W-shaped, and figure-eight mazes. Initially, the T-shaped maze was constructed inside a single experimental room, followed by modifications. The rapid and scalable protocol outlined herein demonstrates the flexibility of the reconfigurable maze, achieved through the addition of components and behavioral training phases in a stepwise manner. The reconfigurable maze systematically and precisely assesses the performance of multiple aspects of spatial navigation behavior.

The present protocol describes a reconfigurable maze, a unique system for testing spatial navigation and behavioral phenotypes in rodents. The adaptability of this maze system enables the execution of various experiments in a single physical environment. The ease of structural rearrangement generates reliable and reproducible experimental results.

Several maze shapes are used to test spatial navigation performance and behavioral phenotypes. Traditionally, each experiment requires a unique maze ...