This work was supported by the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) through the Strategic Innovation Program. KPN acknowledges support from a grant-in-aid for scientific research (Grant no. 15H05462) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).

CAUTION: Wear safety glasses and strictly avoid direct exposure to UV lamp and all lasers including the femtosecond laser. Wear a clean room suit and gloves to avoid contamination. Dispose any fiber trash properly in the designated trash box.
1. Nanofiber Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Use a fiber coating stripper to strip the polymer jacket of the single mode optical fiber for a length of 5 mm at two places separated by 200 mm. Clean the two mechanically stripped parts using cleanroom wipe dipped in methanol. Dip the fiber between these two stripped parts in acetone. Wait for 10 - 15 min till the jacket of the fiber fall apart. Take out the fiber from acetone and clean the entire stripped part using cleanroom wipe dipped in methanol.</li>
	<li>Set the stripped fiber on the two stages of the Optical Nanofiber Manufacture Equipment (ONME) to fabricate the nanofiber.
	<ol>
		<li>Launch the probe laser into the fiber and monitor the transmission using the photodiode and record the transmission data in the computer using the ADC card. Start the gas flow using the ONME software and ignite the flame. Load the pre-optimized parameter in the ONME software for the fabrication of tapered fiber with waist diameter of 500 nm and start the fabrication process. 
		NOTE: The ONME is a commercially available device, designed to fabricate tapered optical fibers using standard heat and pull technique. It uses oxyhydrogen flame to heat the fiber and two motorized stages to pull the fiber. The gas flow and the stage movements are controlled by computer program. The pre-optimized parameters may be obtained from the vendor, upon special request.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After the fabrication, catch the tapered fiber to the nanofiber holder using the UV curable epoxy. Cover the nanofiber holder using the top cover with glass plate (shown in the Figure 1a). Put the sample inside a clean box and transfer to the femtosecond laser fabrication unit.</li>
</ol>
2. Femtosecond Laser Fabrication
<ol>
	<li>Alignment of the fabrication setup
	<ol>
		<li>Put a glass plate on the fabrication bench at a height of 15 mm. Irradiate the femtosecond laser for 5 s at pulse energy of 1 mJ. Identify the femtosecond laser induced ablation from the white light generation, and the appearance of ablation pattern as a damage-line on the glass plate.</li>
		<li>Repeat the procedure by changing the height of the glass plate using the X-stage of the fabrication bench. For each fabrication, translate the Y-stage of the fabrication bench by 1 mm to make the fabrication in a new position.</li>
		<li>Find the height for the strongest ablation line. At this position, fine tune the tilt angle and position of one of the folding mirrors to maximize the ablation. Also, fine tune the tilt of the X-stage of the fabrication bench to maximize the ablation. 
		NOTE: The tilt angle of the folding mirror is tuned using the kinematic mirror holder tuning knobs and the position of the mirror is tuned by translating the Z-stage on which it is mounted.</li>
		<li>After the optimization, mark the position of the ablation line on the CCD camera software and remove the glass plate. 
		NOTE: The control software for the CCD camera enables image capture and drawing marks on the captured image. It also enables saving the data of the captured image and the markings. Since the X-stage of the fabrication bench does not have absolute position reference, the CCD image is used as the position reference in the X-axis. The resolution of the CCD image is 10 &#956;m per pixel.</li>
		<li>Using the Platinum (Pt)-coater, coat the glass plate for 60 s to deposit a 25 nm layer of Pt on the glass plate. Image the ablation pattern on the glass plate using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). If the ablation pattern shows periodic structure with a period of 350 nm (the expected interference fringe pattern) then the alignment is optimized. Else repeat the procedure (from Step 2.1.1 -&#160;2.1.4) for lower pulse energies (down to 300 &#956;J) until a periodic ablation pattern is seen.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fabrication of apodized PhC cavity
	<ol>
		<li>Place the tapered fiber on the fabrication bench approximately parallel to the ablation line marked on the CCD camera.</li>
		<li>Send a probe laser (power = 1 mW) through the tapered fiber and observe the scattering from the tapered fiber on the CCD camera. The strongest scattering part corresponds to the nanofiber region due to its subwavelength diameter.</li>
		<li>Translate the Z-stage of the fabrication bench to center the nanofiber to the ablation line position marked on the CCD camera.</li>
		<li>Switch off the probe laser and irradiate the femtosecond laser with minimum pulse energy (&#60;10 &#956;J). Translate Y-stage to overlap the nanofiber with the femtosecond laser beam. The overlap is identified by the illumination of the nanofiber, observed on the CCD camera. 
		NOTE: The nanofiber is now aligned with respect to the femtosecond laser beam along Y and Z-axis.</li>
		<li>In order to align the nanofiber along the X-axis, translate the X-stage to overlap the nanofiber position to the ablation line position marked on the CCD camera.</li>
		<li>Translate the Y-stage to maximize the overlap of nanofiber with the femtosecond laser. Observe the reflection of the two first orders from the nanofiber (appears as two bright spots on the glass plate of the top cover). Observe the movement of these reflection spots while translating the Y-stage back and forth. 
		NOTE: If these spots move towards one side then nanofiber is not parallel to the ablation line. In this case, rotate the rotation stage to make the nanofiber parallel to the ablation line. When they are parallel, the reflection spots will appear as a flash.</li>
		<li>After making the nanofiber parallel to the ablation line, translate the Y-stage to maximize the overlap between the femtosecond laser beam and nanofiber, by measuring the power of the femtosecond laser scattered into the nanofiber guided modes using a photodiode at the end of the tapered fiber. After maximizing the overlap, rotate the rotation stage to the angle of fabrication &#952; = 0.5 deg. 
		NOTE: For maximum overlap between the femtosecond laser beam and nanofiber, one would expect the power of the femtosecond laser light scattered into the nanofiber guided modes to be maximized.</li>
		<li>Block the femtosecond laser with the power meter and set the pulse energy to 0.27 mJ. Change the femtosecond laser settings to the single-shot irradiation mode. 
		NOTE: In this mode, only a single pulse is generated when the fire-switch is pressed, otherwise there is no laser output.
		<ol>
			<li>Remove the power meter from the laser beam path and fire a single femtosecond laser pulse. This completes the fabrication process.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Fabrication of defect-induced PhC cavity
	<ol>
		<li>Check the alignment of the setup by observing the ablation on a glass plate as described in the section 2.1. After finding the height for the strongest ablation line, insert a 0.5 mm copper wire at the center of the laser beam just before the phase mask. The copper wire should be along the Y-axis (perpendicular to the ablation line).</li>
		<li>Check the ablation pattern on the glass plate while changing the position of the copper wire along the Z-axis. Fix the position of the copper wire when the ablation pattern shows a single gap at the center of the ablation line.</li>
		<li>After the alignment, perform the femtosecond laser fabrication on the nanofiber following the procedure detailed in the section 2.2. For this fabrication, set the angle of fabrication to &#952; = 0 deg.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Characterization of the Fabricated Samples
<ol>
	<li>Measurement of optical properties
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare the setup for the optical measurements as shown in Figure 1b. Launch the broadband light source into the tapered fiber and measure the transmission and reflection spectrum before and after the fabrication using the spectrum analyzer. After fabrication, the transmission spectrum will show a stopband corresponding to the Bragg resonance of the fabricated sample.</li>
		<li>Rotate the paddles of the fiber inline polarizer to select the polarization and take the spectra for two orthogonal polarizations X-pol and Y-pol. 
		NOTE: For the X-pol (polarization along the nano-craters) the stopband will be blue-shifted21 (towards the shorter wavelength) and the scattering from the nanofiber will be stronger. So, select the polarizations by looking at the spectrum and the CCD camera.</li>
		<li>For one of the polarizations, take the transmission spectra by stretching the tapered fiber using the PZT (shown in Figure 1b). Take the spectra by stretching the tapered fiber in steps of 2 &#956;m until the maximum stretching length of 20 &#956;m (limited by the PZT scanning range). Observe that the Bragg resonance will be red-shifted (towards the longer wavelength) by stretching the tapered fiber. From these spectra, calculate the shift of the Bragg resonance, per unit stretching length.</li>
		<li>For resolving the cavity modes and measuring the absolute cavity transmission, use the tunable CW laser source. Launch the laser into the tapered fiber and monitor the transmission using a photodiode.</li>
		<li>Set the laser wavelength to the red-side edge of the stopband for Y-pol and use the fiber inline polarizer to minimize the transmission. In this way, the X-pol component is suppressed and only the Y-pol is selected. Set the laser wavelength to further out of the red-side band-edge and record the transmission while stretching the tapered fiber from 0 - 20 &#956;m.
		<ol>
			<li>Repeat the measurement by changing the laser wavelength to blue-side in steps of 0.3 nm until the entire stopband is covered. From these data, reconstruct the entire spectrum using the data for the resonance shift per unit stretching length measured in step 3.1.3. 
			NOTE: For a typical sample, the stopband (Bragg resonance) along with the cavity modes shifts by 2 nm by stretching the tapered fiber by 20 &#956;m and the typical free spectral range for the cavity modes are between 0.05 - 0.5 nm. For a given wavelength of the input laser one can measure at least 3 - 4 cavity modes by stretching the tapered fiber. The frequency spacing between the modes is inferred from the data for the resonance shift per unit stretching length measured in step 3.1.3. Repeating the measurement by changing the laser wavelength in steps of 0.3 nm, at least 2 - 3 consecutive cavity modes are re-measured in the successive measurements. One can reconstruct the entire spectrum by overlaying the transmission data for the successive measurements while matching position of the re-measured cavity modes.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Now measure the spectrum for the other polarization using similar procedure as mentioned in steps 3.1.5 and 3.1.5.1.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Imaging the fabricated sample
	<ol>
		<li>Put the fabricated sample on a 2 cm long metal plate and fix the two ends of the tapered fiber to the metal plate using UV curable epoxy. Make sure the irradiation side of the sample faces the metal plate so that the shadow side can be imaged.</li>
		<li>Use the Pt-coater to coat the sample for 30 s and deposit a layer of Pt with a thickness of around 10 nm. Place the sample into the SEM. Take the SEM image of the sample at every 0.1 mm over the entire fabricated region.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The lensing effect of the nanofiber plays an important role in the fabrication technique, thereby creating nano-craters on the shadow surface of the nanofiber (shown in Figure 2). The lensing effect of the nanofiber also makes the fabrication process robust to any mechanical instabilities in the transverse direction (Y-axis). Moreover, due to single-shot irradiation, the instabilities along the other axes do not affect the fabrication as the irradiation time is only 120 fs (i.e. pulse width). As...

Strong confinement of light in nanophotonic devices has opened new frontiers in optical science. Modern nanofabrication technologies have enabled fabrication of 1-D and 2-D Photonic Crystal (PhC) cavities for new prospects in lasing1, sensing2 and optical switching applications3. Moreover, strong light-matter interaction in these PhC cavities has opened new avenues for quantum information science4. Apart from PhC cavities, plasmonic nanocavities have also shown promising prospects5,6,7. However, interfacing such cavities to fiber-based communication network remains a challenge.
In recent years, tapered single mode optical fiber with subwavelength diameter, known as optical nanofiber, has emerged as a promising nanophotonic device. Due to the strong transverse confinement of the nanofiber guided field and the ability to interact with the surrounding medium, the nanofiber is widely adapted and investigated for various nanophotonic applications8. Apart from that, it is also strongly investigated and implemented for quantum manipulation of light and matter9. Efficient coupling of emission from quantum emitters like, single/few laser-cooled atoms and single quantum dots, into the nanofiber guided modes has been studied and demonstrated10,11,12,13,14,15. The light-matter interaction on nanofiber can be significantly improved by implementing PhC cavity structure on the nanofiber16,17.
The key advantage for such a system is the fiber-in-line technology which can be readily integrated to communication network. Light transmission of 99.95% through the tapered nanofiber has been demonstrated18. However, the nanofiber transmission is extremely susceptible to dust and contamination. Therefore, fabrication of PhC structure on nanofiber using conventional nanofabrication technique is not very fruitful. Although cavity fabrication on nanofiber using Focused Ion Beam (FIB) milling has been demonstrated19,20, the optical quality and reproducibility is not as high.
In this video protocol, we present a recently demonstrated21,22 technique to fabricate PhC cavities on nanofiber using femtosecond laser ablation. The fabrications are performed by creating a two-beam interference pattern of the femtosecond laser on the nanofiber and irradiating a single femtosecond laser pulse. The lensing effect of the nanofiber plays an important role in the feasibility of such techniques, creating ablation craters on the shadow surface of the nanofiber. For a typical sample, periodic nano-craters with a period of 350 nm and with diameter gradually varying from 50 - 250 nm over a length of 1 mm are fabricated on a nanofiber with diameter around 450 - 550 nm. Such periodic nano-craters on nanofiber, act as a 1-D PhC. We also present a method to control the profile of the nano-crater array to fabricate apodized and defect-induced PhC cavities on the nanofiber.
A key aspect of such nanofabrication is the all optical fabrication, so that high optical quality can be maintained. Moreover, the fabrication is done by the irradiation of just a single femtosecond laser pulse, making the technique immune to mechanical instabilities and other fabrication imperfections. Also this enables in-house production of PhC nanofiber cavity so that the probability of contamination can be minimized. This protocol is intended to help others implement and adapt this new type of nanofabrication technique.
Figure 1a shows the schematic diagram of the fabrication setup. The details of the fabrication setup and alignment procedures are discussed in21,22. A femtosecond laser with 400 nm center wavelength and 120 fs pulse width is incident on a phase mask. The phase mask splits the femtosecond laser beam in to 0 and &#177;1 orders. A beam block is used to block the 0-order beam. The folding mirrors symmetrically recombine the &#177;1-orders at the nanofiber position, to create an interference pattern. The pitch of the phase mask is 700 nm, so the interference pattern has a pitch (&#923;G) of 350 nm. The cylindrical lens focuses the femtosecond laser beam along the nanofiber. The beam size across (Y-axis) and along (Z-axis) the nanofiber is 60 &#181;m and 5.6 mm, respectively. The tapered fiber is mounted on a holder equipped with piezo actuator (PZT) for stretching the fiber. A top cover with glass plate is used to protect the nanofiber from dust. The holder with the tapered fiber is fixed on a fabrication bench equipped with translation (XYZ) and rotation (&#952;) stages. The &#952;-stage allows rotation of the nanofiber sample in the YZ-plane. The X-stage can also control the tilt angles along XY- and XZ-plane. A CCD camera is placed at a distance of 20 cm from the nanofiber and at an angle of 45&#176;&#160;in the XY-plane to monitor the nanofiber position. All the experiments are performed inside a clean booth equipped with HEPA (High-efficiency particulate arresting) filters to achieve dust-free conditions. Dust-free condition is essential to maintain the transmission of the nanofiber.
Figure 1b shows the schematic of the optical measurements. During fabrication, the optical properties are briefly monitored by launching a broadband (wavelength range: 700 - 900 nm) fiber-coupled light source into the tapered fiber and measuring the spectrum of the transmitted and reflected light using high resolution spectrum analyzer. A tunable CW laser source is used to properly resolve the cavity modes and to measure the absolute cavity transmission.
We present the protocol for the fabrication and characterization. The protocol section is divided in three subsections, nanofiber preparation, femtosecond laser fabrication and characterization of the fabricated samples.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="828">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:309px;">Femtosecond Laser</td>
			<td style="width:219px;">Coherent Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:236px;">Libra HE</td>
			<td style="width:64px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Phase Mask</td>
			<td>Ibsen Photonics</td>
			<td>Custom Made</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Optial Nanofiber Manufacturing Equipment&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Ishihara Sangyo</td>
			<td>ONME</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ADC Card</td>
			<td>PicoTech</td>
			<td>ADC-24</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Single mode fiber</td>
			<td>Fujikura</td>
			<td>FutureGuide-SM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Broadband source</td>
			<td>NKT Photonics</td>
			<td>SuperK EXTREME</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">CW Tunable Laser</td>
			<td>Coherent Inc.</td>
			<td>MBR-110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Spectrum analyser (Transmission spectrum)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>Nicolet 8700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Spectrum analyser (Reflection spectrum)</td>
			<td>Ocean Optics</td>
			<td>QE65000</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">CCD Camera</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>DCC1545M</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Power Meter</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>D3MM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Pt-Coater</td>
			<td>Vacuum Device Inc.</td>
			<td>MSP-1S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Scanning Electron Microscope</td>
			<td>Keyence</td>
			<td>VE-9800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">UV Curable Epoxy</td>
			<td>NTT-AT</td>
			<td>AT8105</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Photodiode</td>
			<td>ThorLabs</td>
			<td>PDA 36A-EC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Clean room wipe</td>
			<td>TExWipe</td>
			<td>TX-404</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Fiber coating stripper</td>
			<td>NTT-AT</td>
			<td>Fiber nippers 250 &#956;m&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cover glass</td>
			<td>Matsunami Glass IND,LTD</td>
			<td>NEO micro cover glass 0.12-0.17 mm&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PZT</td>
			<td>NOLIAC</td>
			<td>NAC 2011-H20</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cylindrical lens stage</td>
			<td>NewPort</td>
			<td>M-481-A&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Y,Z stages</td>
			<td>Chuo Precision Industrial Co., LTD.</td>
			<td>LD-149-C7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Rotation stage</td>
			<td>SIGMA KOKI</td>
			<td>KSPB-1026MH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Z-stage(1), Z-stage(2)</td>
			<td>NewPort</td>
			<td>M-460P&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Fiber coating stripper</td>
			<td>NTT-AT</td>
			<td>Fiber nippers 250 &#956;m&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fabrication of 1-d photonic crystal cavity on a nanofiber using femtosecond laser-induced ablation

We present a protocol for fabricating 1-D Photonic Crystal (PhC) cavities on subwavelength-diameter tapered optical fibers, optical nanofibers, using femtosecond laser-induced ablation. We show that thousands of periodic nano-craters are fabricated on an optical nanofiber by irradiating with just a single femtosecond laser pulse. For a typical sample, periodic nano-craters with a period of 350 nm and with diameter gradually varying from 50 - 250 nm over a length of 1 mm are fabricated on a nanofiber with diameter around 450 - 550 nm. A key aspect of such a nanofabrication is that the nanofiber itself acts as a cylindrical lens and focuses the femtosecond laser beam on its shadow surface. Moreover, the single-shot fabrication makes it immune to mechanical instabilities and other fabrication imperfections. Such periodic nano-craters on nanofiber, act as a 1-D PhC and enable strong and broadband reflection while maintaining the high transmission out of the stopband. We also present a method to control the profile of the nano-crater array to fabricate apodized and defect-induced PhC cavities on the nanofiber. The strong confinement of the field, both transverse and longitudinal, in the nanofiber-based PhC cavities and the efficient integration to the fiber networks, may open new possibilities for nanophotonic applications and quantum information science.

Figure 2 shows the SEM image of a typical segment of the fabricated nanofiber sample. It shows that periodic nano-craters are formed on the shadow side of the nanofiber, with a periodicity of 350 nm corresponding well to the interference pattern. The inset shows the enlarged view of the sample. The shape of the nano-craters is almost circular and the diameter of a typical nano-crater is around 210 nm.
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Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication of 1-D Photonic Crystal Cavity on a Nanofiber Using Femtosecond Laser-induced Ablation at JoVE.com

Fabrication of 1-D Photonic Crystal Cavity on a Nanofiber Using Femtosecond Laser-induced Ablation

We present a protocol for fabricating 1-D photonic crystal cavities on subwavelength diameter silica fibers (optical nanofibers) using femtosecond laser-induced ablation.

We present a protocol for fabricating 1-D Photonic Crystal (PhC) cavities on subwavelength-diameter tapered optical fibers, optical nanofibers, using ...

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9.7K Views.  University of Electro-Communications. We present a protocol for fabricating 1-D photonic crystal cavities on subwavelength diameter silica fibers (optical nanofibers) using femtosecond laser-induced ablation.

Video: Fabrication of 1-D Photonic Crystal Cavity on a Nanofiber Using Femtosecond Laser-induced Ablation

Fabrication And Characterization Of Photonic Crystal Slow Light Waveguides And Cavities

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view and for its considerable potential for practical applications. Slow light photonic crystal waveguides, in particular, have played a major part and have been successfully employed for delaying optical signals1-4 and the enhancement of both linear5-7 and nonlinear devices.8-11
Photonic crystal cavities achieve similar effects to that of slow light waveguides, but over a reduced band-width. These cavities offer high Q-factor/volume ratio, for the realization of optically12 and electrically13 pumped ultra-low threshold lasers and the enhancement of nonlinear effects.14-16 Furthermore, passive filters17 and modulators18-19 have been demonstrated, exhibiting ultra-narrow line-width, high free-spectral range and record values of low energy consumption.
To attain these exciting results, a robust repeatable fabrication protocol must be developed. In this paper we take an in-depth look at our fabrication protocol which employs electron-beam lithography for the definition of photonic crystal patterns and uses wet and dry etching techniques. Our optimised fabrication recipe results in photonic crystals that do not suffer from vertical asymmetry and exhibit very good edge-wall roughness. We discuss the results of varying the etching parameters and the detrimental effects that they can have on a device, leading to a diagnostic route that can be taken to identify and eliminate similar issues.
The key to evaluating slow light waveguides is the passive characterization of transmission and group index spectra. Various methods have been reported, most notably resolving the Fabry-Perot fringes of the transmission spectrum20-21 and interferometric techniques.22-25 Here, we describe a direct, broadband measurement technique combining spectral interferometry with Fourier transform analysis.26 Our method stands out for its simplicity and power, as we can characterise a bare photonic crystal with access waveguides, without need for on-chip interference components, and the setup only consists of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, with no need for moving parts and delay scans.
When characterising photonic crystal cavities, techniques involving internal sources21 or external waveguides directly coupled to the cavity27 impact on the performance of the cavity itself, thereby distorting the measurement. Here, we describe a novel and non-intrusive technique that makes use of a cross-polarised probe beam and is known as resonant scattering (RS), where the probe is coupled out-of plane into the cavity through an objective. The technique was first demonstrated by McCutcheon et al.28 and further developed by Galli et al.29

Use of photonic crystal slow light waveguides and cavities has been widely adopted by the photonics community in many differing applications. Therefore fabrication and characterization of these devices are of great interest. This paper outlines our fabrication technique and two optical characterization methods, namely: interferometric (waveguides) and resonant scattering (cavities).

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view ...

Measurement of Coherence Decay in GaMnAs Using Femtosecond Four-wave Mixing

The application of femtosecond four-wave mixing to the study of fundamental properties of diluted magnetic semiconductors ((s,p)-d hybridization, spin-flip scattering) is described, using experiments on GaMnAs as a prototype III-Mn-V system.&#160; Spectrally-resolved and time-resolved experimental configurations are described, including the use of zero-background autocorrelation techniques for pulse optimization.&#160; The etching process used to prepare GaMnAs samples for four-wave mixing experiments is also highlighted.&#160; The high temporal resolution of this technique, afforded by the use of short (20 fsec) optical pulses, permits the rapid spin-flip scattering process in this system to be studied directly in the time domain, providing new insight into the strong exchange coupling responsible for carrier-mediated ferromagnetism.&#160; We also show that spectral resolution of the four-wave mixing signal allows one to extract clear signatures of (s,p)-d hybridization in this system, unlike linear spectroscopy techniques.&#160;&#160; This increased sensitivity is due to the nonlinearity of the technique, which suppresses defect-related contributions to the optical response. This method may be used to measure the time scale for coherence decay (tied to the fastest scattering processes) in a wide variety of semiconductor systems of interest for next generation electronics and optoelectronics.

The technique of femtosecond four-wave mixing is described, including spectrally-resolved and time-resolved configurations. We illustrate the utility of this technique for the investigation of crucial physical properties in the III-V diluted magnetic semiconductors, afforded by its nonlinearity and high temporal resolution.

The application of femtosecond four-wave mixing to the study of fundamental properties of diluted magnetic semiconductors ((s,p)-d hybridization, ...

Using Microwave and Macroscopic Samples of Dielectric Solids to Study the Photonic Properties of Disordered Photonic Bandgap Materials

Recently, disordered photonic materials have been suggested as an alternative to periodic crystals for the formation of a complete photonic bandgap (PBG). In this article we will describe the methods for constructing and characterizing macroscopic disordered photonic structures using microwaves. The microwave regime offers the most convenient experimental sample size to build and test PBG media. Easily manipulated dielectric lattice components extend flexibility in building various 2D structures on top of pre-printed plastic templates. Once built, the structures could be quickly modified with point and line defects to make freeform waveguides and filters. Testing is done using a widely available Vector Network Analyzer and pairs of microwave horn antennas. Due to the scale invariance property of electromagnetic fields, the results we obtained in the microwave region can be directly applied to infrared and optical regions. Our approach is simple but delivers exciting new insight into the nature of light and disordered matter interaction.

Our representative results include the first experimental demonstration of the existence of a complete and isotropic PBG in a two-dimensional (2D) hyperuniform disordered dielectric structure. Additionally we demonstrate experimentally the ability of this novel photonic structure to guide electromagnetic waves (EM) through freeform waveguides of arbitrary shape.

Disordered structures offer new mechanisms for forming photonic bandgaps and unprecedented freedom in functional-defect designs. To circumvent the computational challenges of disordered systems, we construct modular macroscopic samples of the new class of PBG materials and use microwaves to characterize their scale-invariant photonic properties, in an easy and inexpensive manner.

Recently, disordered photonic materials have been suggested as an alternative to periodic crystals for the formation of a complete photonic bandgap (PBG). ...

Laser-induced Forward Transfer for Flip-chip Packaging of Single Dies

Flip-chip (FC) packaging is a key technology for realizing high performance, ultra-miniaturized and high-density circuits in the micro-electronics industry. In this technique the chip and/or the substrate is bumped and the two are bonded via these conductive bumps. Many bumping techniques have been developed and intensively investigated since the introduction of the FC technology in 19601 such as stencil printing, stud bumping, evaporation and electroless/electroplating2. Despite the progress that these methods have made they all suffer from one or more than one drawbacks that need to be addressed such as cost, complex processing steps, high processing temperatures, manufacturing time and most importantly the lack of flexibility. In this paper, we demonstrate a simple and cost-effective laser-based bump forming technique known as Laser-induced Forward Transfer (LIFT)3. Using the LIFT technique a wide range of bump materials can be printed in a single-step with great flexibility, high speed and accuracy at RT. In addition, LIFT enables the bumping and bonding down to chip-scale, which is critical for fabricating ultra-miniature circuitry.

We demonstrate the use of the Laser-induced Forward Transfer (LIFT) technique for flip-chip assembly of optoelectronic components. This approach provides a simple, cost-effective, low-temperature, fast and flexible solution for fine-pitch bumping and bonding on chip-scale for achieving high-density circuits for optoelectronic applications.

Flip-chip (FC) packaging is a key technology for realizing high performance, ultra-miniaturized and high-density circuits in the micro-electronics ...

Laser-induced Forward Transfer of Ag Nanopaste

Over the past decade, there has been much development of non-lithographic methods1-3 for printing metallic inks or other functional materials. Many of these processes such as inkjet3 and laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT)4 have become increasingly popular as interest in printable electronics and maskless patterning has grown. These additive manufacturing processes are inexpensive, environmentally friendly, and well suited for rapid prototyping, when compared to more traditional semiconductor processing techniques. While most direct-write processes are confined to two-dimensional structures and cannot handle materials with high viscosity (particularly inkjet), LIFT can transcend both constraints if performed properly. Congruent transfer of three dimensional pixels (called voxels), also referred to as laser decal transfer (LDT)5-9, has recently been demonstrated with the LIFT technique using highly viscous Ag nanopastes to fabricate freestanding interconnects, complex voxel shapes, and high-aspect-ratio structures. In this paper, we demonstrate a simple yet versatile process for fabricating a variety of micro- and macroscale Ag structures. Structures include simple shapes for patterning electrical contacts, bridging and cantilever structures, high-aspect-ratio structures, and single-shot, large area transfers using a commercial digital micromirror device (DMD) chip.

We demonstrate the use of the Laser-induced forward transfer technique (LIFT) for the printing of high-viscosity Ag paste. This technique offers a simple, low temperature, robust process for non-lithographically printing microscale 2D and 3D structures.

Over the past decade, there has been much development of non-lithographic methods1-3 for printing metallic inks or other functional materials. Many of ...

Resonance Fluorescence of an InGaAs Quantum Dot in a Planar Cavity Using Orthogonal Excitation and Detection

The ability to perform simultaneous resonant excitation and fluorescence detection is important for quantum optical measurements of quantum dots (QDs). Resonant excitation without fluorescence detection &#8211; for example, a differential transmission measurement &#8211; can determine some properties of the emitting system, but does not allow applications or measurements based on the emitted photons. For example, the measurement of photon correlations, observation of the Mollow triplet, and realization of single photon sources all require collection of the fluorescence. Incoherent excitation with fluorescence detection &#8211; for example, above band-gap excitation &#8211; can be used to create single photon sources, but the disturbance of the environment due to the excitation reduces the indistinguishability of the photons. Single photon sources based on QDs will have to be resonantly excited to have high photon indistinguishability, and simultaneous collection of the photons will be necessary to make use of them. We demonstrate a method to resonantly excite a single QD embedded in a planar cavity by coupling the excitation beam into this cavity from the cleaved face of the sample while collecting the fluorescence along the sample&#39;s surface normal direction. By carefully matching the excitation beam to the waveguide mode of the cavity, the excitation light can couple into the cavity and interact with the QD. The scattered photons can couple to the Fabry-Perot mode of the cavity and escape in the surface normal direction. This method allows complete freedom in the detection polarization, but the excitation polarization is restricted by the propagation direction of the excitation beam. The fluorescence from the wetting layer provides a guide to align the collection path with respect to the excitation beam. The orthogonality of the excitation and detection modes enables resonant excitation of a single QD with negligible laser scattering background.

Resonant excitation of a single self-assembled quantum dot can be achieved using an excitation mode orthogonal to the fluorescence collection mode. We demonstrate a method using the waveguide and Fabry-Perot modes of a planar microcavity surrounding the quantum dots. The method allows complete freedom in the detection polarization.

The ability to perform simultaneous resonant excitation and fluorescence detection is important for quantum optical measurements of quantum dots (QDs). ...

Preparation of Large-area Vertical 2D Crystal Hetero-structures Through the Sulfurization of Transition Metal Films for Device Fabrication

We have demonstrated that through the sulfurization of transition metal films such as molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W), large-area and uniform transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) MoS2 and WS2 can be prepared on sapphire substrates. By controlling the metal film thicknesses, good layer number controllability, down to a single layer of TMDs, can be obtained using this growth technique. Based on the results obtained from the Mo film sulfurized under the sulfur deficient condition, there are two mechanisms of (a) planar MoS2 growth and (b) Mo oxide segregation observed during the sulfurization procedure. When the background sulfur is sufficient, planar TMD growth is the dominant growth mechanism, which will result in a uniform MoS2 film after the sulfurization procedure. If the background sulfur is deficient, Mo oxide segregation will be the dominant growth mechanism at the initial stage of the sulfurization procedure. In this case, the sample with Mo oxide clusters covered with few-layer MoS2 will be obtained. After sequential Mo deposition/sulfurization and W deposition/sulfurization procedures, vertical WS2/MoS2 hetero-structures are established using this growth technique. Raman peaks corresponding to WS2 and MoS2, respectively, and the identical layer number of the hetero-structure with the summation of individual 2D materials have confirmed the successful establishment of the vertical 2D crystal hetero-structure. After transferring the WS2/MoS2 film onto a SiO2/Si substrate with pre-patterned source/drain electrodes, a bottom-gate transistor is fabricated. Compared with the transistor with only MoS2 channels, the higher drain currents of the device with the WS2/MoS2 hetero-structure have exhibited that with the introduction of 2D crystal hetero-structures, superior device performance can be obtained. The results have revealed the potential of this growth technique for the practical application of 2D crystals.

Through the sulfurization of pre-deposited transition metals, large-area and vertical 2D crystal hetero-structures can be fabricated. The film transferring and device fabrication procedures are also demonstrated in this report.

We have demonstrated that through the sulfurization of transition metal films such as molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W), large-area and uniform transition ...

A Fabrication and Measurement Method for a Flexible Ferroelectric Element Based on Van Der Waals Heteroepitaxy

Flexible non-volatile memories have received much attention as they are applicable for portable smart electronic device in the future, relying on high-density data storage and low-power consumption capabilities. However, the high-quality oxide based nonvolatile memory on flexible substrates is often constrained by the material characteristics and the inevitable high-temperature fabrication process. In this paper, a protocol is proposed to directly grow an epitaxial yet flexible lead zirconium titanate memory element on muscovite mica. The versatile deposition technique and measurement method enable the fabrication of flexible yet single-crystalline non-volatile memory elements necessary for the next generation of smart devices.

In this paper, we present a protocol to directly grow an epitaxial yet flexible lead zirconium titanate memory element on muscovite mica.

Flexible non-volatile memories have received much attention as they are applicable for portable smart electronic device in the future, relying on ...

Fabrication of Flexible Image Sensor Based on Lateral NIPIN Phototransistors

Flexible photodetectors have been intensely studied for the use of curved image sensors, which are a crucial component in bio-inspired imaging systems, but several challenging points remain, such as a low absorption efficiency due to a thin active layer and low flexibility. We present an advanced method to fabricate a flexible phototransistor array with an improved electrical performance. The outstanding electrical performance is driven by a low dark current owing to deep impurity doping. Stretchable and flexible metal interconnectors simultaneously offer electrical and mechanical stabilities in a highly deformed state. The protocol explicitly describes the fabrication process of the phototransistor using a thin silicon membrane. By measuring I-V characteristics of the completed device in deformed states, we demonstrate that this approach improves the mechanical and electrical stabilities of the phototransistor array. We expect that this approach to a flexible phototransistor can be widely used for the applications of not only next-generation imaging systems/optoelectronics but also wearable devices such as tactile/pressure/temperature sensors and health monitors.

We present a detailed method to fabricate a deformable lateral NIPIN phototransistor array for curved image sensors. The phototransistor array with an open mesh form, which is composed of thin silicon islands and stretchable metal interconnectors, provides flexibility and stretchability. The parameter analyzer characterizes the electrical property of the fabricated phototransistor.

Flexible photodetectors have been intensely studied for the use of curved image sensors, which are a crucial component in bio-inspired imaging systems, ...

Fabrication of Magnetic Nanostructures on Silicon Nitride Membranes for Magnetic Vortex Studies Using Transmission Microscopy Techniques

Electron and x-ray magnetic microscopies allow for high-resolution magnetic imaging down to tens of nanometers. However, the samples need to be prepared on transparent membranes which are very fragile and difficult to manipulate. We present processes for the fabrication of samples with magnetic micro- and nanostructures with spin configurations forming magnetic vortices suitable for Lorentz transmission electron microscopy and magnetic transmission x-ray microscopy studies. The samples are prepared on silicon nitride membranes and the fabrication consists of a spin coating, UV and electron-beam lithography, the chemical development of the resist, and the evaporation of the magnetic material followed by a lift-off process forming the final magnetic structures. The samples for the Lorentz transmission electron microscopy consist of magnetic nanodiscs prepared in a single lithography step. The samples for the magnetic x-ray transmission microscopy are used for time-resolved magnetization dynamic experiments, and magnetic nanodiscs are placed on a waveguide which is used for the generation of repeatable magnetic field pulses by passing an electric current through the waveguide. The waveguide is created in an extra lithography step.

A protocol for the fabrication of magnetic micro- and nanostructures with spin configurations forming magnetic vortices suitable for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and magnetic transmission x-ray microscopy (MTXM) studies is presented.

Electron and x-ray magnetic microscopies allow for high-resolution magnetic imaging down to tens of nanometers. However, the samples need to be prepared ...