The authors acknowledge Peter Jonosson and the Lyons New Media Centre for the 3D printing of the chambers. This research was supported by 436100-2013 RGPIN, ER15-11-123, the McMaster Dean of Engineering Excellence Undergraduate Summer Research Award, and the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program.

<ol>
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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simple+miniature+controlled-atmosphere+chamber+for+optoelectronic+characterizations.">A simple miniature controlled-atmosphere chamber for optoelectronic characterizations.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 94 (7), 1254-1258 (2010).</li><li>Gevorgyan, S. A., Jorgensen, M., Krebs, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+setup+for+studying+stability+and+degradation+of+polymer+solar+cells.">A setup for studying stability and degradation of polymer solar cells.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 92 (7), 736-745 (2008).</li><li>Park, J. -. S. S., Chae, H., Chung, H. K., Lee, S. 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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Round+robin+performance+testing+of+organic+photovoltaic+devices.">Round robin performance testing of organic photovoltaic devices.</a> Renewable Energy. 63, 376-387 (2014).</li><li>Osterwald, C. R., Hammond, R., Zerlaut, G., D'Aiello, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photovoltaic+module+certification+and+laboratory+accreditation+criteria+development.">Photovoltaic module certification and laboratory accreditation criteria development.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 41, 629-636 (1996).</li><li>Turak, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Systematic+analysis+of+processing+parameters+on+the+ordering+and+performance+of+working+poly(3-hexyl-thiophene):[6,6]-phenyl+C(61)-butyric+acid+methyl+ester+solar+cells.">Systematic analysis of processing parameters on the ordering and performance of working poly(3-hexyl-thiophene):[6,6]-phenyl C(61)-butyric acid methyl ester solar cells.</a> Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy. 2 (5), 53103 (2010).</li><li>Qi, B., Wang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fill+factor+in+organic+solar+cells.">Fill factor in organic solar cells.</a> Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 15 (23), 8972-8982 (2013).</li><li>Lu, N., Li, L., Sun, P., Liu, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Short-circuit+current+model+of+organic+solar+cells.">Short-circuit current model of organic solar cells.</a> Chemical Physics Letters. 614, 27-30 (2014).</li><li>Qi, B., Wang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Open-circuit+voltage+in+organic+solar+cells.">Open-circuit voltage in organic solar cells.</a> Journal of Materials Chemistry. 22 (46), 24315-24325 (2012).</li><li>Xue, J., Uchida, S., Rand, B. P., Forrest, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=4.2%+efficient+organic+photovoltaic+cells+with+low+series+resistances.">4.2% efficient organic photovoltaic cells with low series resistances.</a> Applied Physics Letters. 84 (16), 3013-3015 (2004).</li><li>Hauch, J. A., Schilinsky, P., Choulis, S. A., Rajoelson, S., Brabec, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+water+vapor+transmission+rate+on+the+lifetime+of+flexible+polymer+solar+cells.">The impact of water vapor transmission rate on the lifetime of flexible polymer solar cells.</a> Applied Physics Letters. 93 (10), 103306 (2008).</li><li>Norrman, K., Madsen, M. V., Gevorgyan, S. A., Krebs, F. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Degradation+Patterns+in+Water+and+Oxygen+of+an+Inverted+Polymer+Solar+Cell.">Degradation Patterns in Water and Oxygen of an Inverted Polymer Solar Cell.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 132 (47), 16883-16892 (2010).</li><li>Dameron, A. A., Reese, M. O., Moriconie, T. J., Kempe, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Understanding+Moisture+Ingress+and+Packaging+Requirements+for+Photovoltaic+Modules.">Understanding Moisture Ingress and Packaging Requirements for Photovoltaic Modules.</a> Photovoltaics International. 5, 121-130 (2009).</li><li>Standard Test Method for Water Vapor Transmission Rate of Sheet Materials Using Dynamic Relative Humidity Measurement. ASTM E398 - 13 Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.astm.org/Standards/E398">https://www.astm.org/Standards/E398</a> (2013)</li><li>Basha, R. K., Konno, K., Kani, H., Water Kimura, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water+Vapor+Transmission+Rate+of+Biomass+Based+Film+Materials.">Water Vapor Transmission Rate of Biomass Based Film Materials.</a> Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food. 4 (2), 37-42 (2011).</li><li>Kim, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+correlation+study+between+barrier+film+performance+and+shelf+lifetime+of+encapsulated+organic+solar+cells.">A correlation study between barrier film performance and shelf lifetime of encapsulated organic solar cells.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 101, 140-146 (2012).</li><li>Reese, M. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathways+for+the+degradation+of+organic+photovoltaic+P3HT:+PCBM+based+devices.">Pathways for the degradation of organic photovoltaic P3HT: PCBM based devices.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 92 (7), 746-752 (2008).</li><li>Kempe, M. D., Reese, M. O., Dameron, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+the+sensitivity+limits+of+water+vapor+transmission+rate+measurements+using+electrical+calcium+test.">Evaluation of the sensitivity limits of water vapor transmission rate measurements using electrical calcium test.</a> Review of Scientific Instruments. 84 (2), 025109 (2013).</li><li>Reese, M. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Consensus+stability+testing+protocols+for+organic+photovoltaic+materials+and+devices.">Consensus stability testing protocols for organic photovoltaic materials and devices.</a> Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells. 95 (5), 1253-1267 (2011).</li><li>. Current landscape of standardisation efforts in organic and printed electronics 2015 - a VAMAS review Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278035615_Current_landscape_of_standardisation_efforts_in_organic_and_printed_electronics_2015_-_a_VAMAS_review">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278035615_Current_landscape_of_standardisation_efforts_in_organic_and_printed_electronics_2015_-_a_VAMAS_review</a> (2015)</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The critical steps in recreating this experiment include the printing of the chambers to avoid cracks, gaps, or poor in-fill characteristics which can decrease the WVTR, sealing the chamber to prevent any ingress of moisture and oxygen by tightening the KF50 clamp to achieve a full sealing between the top and bottom chambers, using a vacuum-rated low-pressure epoxy around the contact pins or any feedthroughs to prevent any leaking, and creating a seal between the sample and the top chamber using a proper O-ring placement...

Organic and perovskite optoelectronic devices, solar cells, and light-emitting diodes based on &#960;-conjugated semiconducting organic molecules and organometal halides are a rapidly growing field of research. Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are already a major technological element in lighting and displays1, and organic photovoltaics have begun to achieve efficiencies that make them competitive with amorphous silicon2. The recent rapid advancement of perovskite-based devices for light absorbing and light-emitting applications3,4,5 suggests that low-cost, easily processed devices are likely to soon find widespread deployment. However, all of these technologies suffer from a sensitivity to atmospheric contaminants, particularly moisture and oxygen, which limits their effective lifetimes6,7,8,9.
For researchers studying such systems, it can be useful to have an adaptable, easy-to-use, portable, and reusable chamber to protect such sensitive materials or to expose them to contaminants in a controlled manner10,11. Though it is possible to use a glovebox for the characterization of air-sensitive devices, these large, expensive, and fixed-location, inert environments may be incompatible with the wide range of characterization that might be required. To provide a portable alternative, Reese et al.10 proposed a small metal chamber based on a standard vacuum flange suitable for the electrical and optical characterization of organic devices. We have adapted this design, making it cheaper and more versatile by using 3D-printing to produce the chamber components. The use of 3D-printing, rather than machining, allows for rapid, cost-effective adjustments to changing sample or environmental requirements while maintaining the utility of the basic design. In this contribution, we outline the procedure to make such a chamber, and use it to extract the current-voltage characteristics of an organic diode device.
A good encapsulation of organic and perovskite devices should have WVTRs of 10-3 - 10-6 g/m2/day for long-term device stability12,13, to ensure&#160;little water ingress into the organic device even in very harsh conditions. As this chamber is designed to be a controlled environment for testing purposes rather than a long-term storage or encapsulation method, the requirements for an effective chamber are not as strict. The chamber should be able to maintain the device properties within a reasonable timeframe to perform characterization experiments. The standard operating procedure of using PLA results in a chamber which can be used for several days or even weeks with an incorporated gas flow, without a significant loss of the device properties.
Changing the materials, or even the shape and size of the chamber body can drastically affect the penetration of contaminants from the air into the chamber. Therefore, the ingress of moisture and oxygen needs to be carefully monitored for each design to determine the efficacy of the chamber. We, additionally to the fabrication of the chamber, outline a simple procedure for determining the WVTR of the chamber, using a commercially available humidity sensor, to establish a timeframe for the use of the chamber for experimentation.
Such a simple, yet versatile chamber allows for multiple types of experiments to be performed. They can act as inert atmosphere environments outside the glovebox, suitable for electrical and optical characterizations through the electrical feedthrough ports and window. Their portability allows them to be used with standard electrical characterization equipment outside the lab where they were manufactured, which is useful in round robin testing for reliability14 or to obtain certified measurements of the device performance15. These chambers are also particularly useful for studying the effects of the introduction of contaminants for controlled degradation tests, with simple modifications. The use of 3D printing allows a significant, rapid adaptability to changing device layouts, sizes, or testing requirements.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>ORION DELTA DESKTOP 3D PRINTER RTP</td>
			<td>SeeMeCNC</td>
			<td>87999</td>
			<td>Known in Report As: 3D Printer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.75 mm PLA Filament</td>
			<td>SeeMeCNC</td>
			<td>50241</td>
			<td>Known in Report As: PLA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Somos&#174; WaterShed XC 11122 chamber</td>
			<td>Somos</td>
			<td>printed at Custom Prototypes, Toronto.</td>
			<td>https://www.dsm.com/products/somos/en_US/products/offerings-somos-water-shed.html 
			Known in Report As: Water resistant polymer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CURA</td>
			<td>CURA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://ultimaker.com/en/products/cura-software 
			Known in Report As: slicing software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Soldering iron with 600&#176; F tip</td>
			<td>Weller</td>
			<td>WTCPT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xtralien X100 Source Measure Unit</td>
			<td>Ossila</td>
			<td>E561</td>
			<td>Known in Report As: SMU</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ZIF Test Board for Pixelated Anode Substrates</td>
			<td>Ossila</td>
			<td>E221</td>
			<td>Known in Report As: Zero insetion force/ZIF Test Board;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BNC Cable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Generic USB A - B</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Generic USB A - Micro</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>#12 O-Ring</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Source unkown 
			Known in Report As: o-ring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>116 Butyl O-Ring</td>
			<td>Global Rubber Products</td>
			<td>116 VI70</td>
			<td>Bought in-store 
			Known in Report As: o-ring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Retaining ring</td>
			<td>McMaster</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>3D printed in-house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bottom Chamber</td>
			<td>McMaster</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>3D printed in-house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Top Chamber</td>
			<td>McMaster</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>3D printed in-house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KF50 Cast Clamp (Aluminum)</td>
			<td>Kurt J. Lesker</td>
			<td>QF50-200-C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KF50 Centering Ring (Aluminum)</td>
			<td>Kurt J. Lesker</td>
			<td>QF50-200-BRB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sn60/Pb40 Solder</td>
			<td>MG Chemicals</td>
			<td>4895-2270</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>#4-40 x 3/16&#34; machine screw</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hardware store</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>#4-40 IntThrd Brass TaperSingleVane Insert For Thermoplastic</td>
			<td>Fastenal</td>
			<td>11125984</td>
			<td>Fastenal requires to be affiliated with company/university 
			Known in Report As: #4-40 brass tapered threaded insert</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Varian Torr Seal Vacuum Equipment High Vacuum Epoxy</td>
			<td>Vacuum Products Canada Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Known in Report As: low-pressure epoxy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Smiths Interconnect/IDI Contact Probes HEADED RADIUS</td>
			<td>Mouser Electornics</td>
			<td>818-S-100-D-3.5-G</td>
			<td>Known in Report As: pogo pin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Smiths Interconnect/IDI Contact Probes Receptacle Solder Cup</td>
			<td>Mouser Electornics</td>
			<td>818-R-100-SC</td>
			<td>Known in Report As: solder cup</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1/4&#34; Teflon Tubing</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hardware store</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Teflon tape</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hardware store</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1/4&#34; Tube x 1/8&#34; Male NPT Nickel Plated Brass Push-to-Connect Connector</td>
			<td>Fastenal</td>
			<td>442064</td>
			<td>Not the same ones used for this study, but are fuctionally equivalent 
			Known in Report As: push-to-connect pneumatic connector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1/8&#34; NPT Tap and T-wrench</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hardware store</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1/4&#34; Tube Push-to-Connect Manually Operated Valves</td>
			<td>Fluidline</td>
			<td>7910-56-00</td>
			<td>Known in Report As: manually operated push-to-connect valves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adafruit DHT22 Humidity Sensor (small)</td>
			<td>Digi-Key</td>
			<td>385</td>
			<td>Known in Report As: internal humidity sensor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adafruit DHT22 Humidity Sensor (large)</td>
			<td>Digi-Key</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Known in Report As: external humidity sensor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arduino Uno</td>
			<td>Arduino</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glovebox environment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 kOhm Resistor</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oscilla Xtralien Scientific Python IDE</td>
			<td>Oscilla</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://www.ossila.com/pages/xtralien-scientific-python 
			Known in Report As: Python IDE</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a 3d-printed chamber for organic optoelectronic device degradation testing

In this manuscript, we outline the manufacture of a small, portable, easy-to-use atmospheric chamber for organic and perovskite optoelectronic devices, using 3D-printing. As these types of devices are sensitive to moisture and oxygen, such a chamber can aid researchers in characterizing the electronic and stability properties. The chamber is intended to be used as a temporary, reusable, and stable environment with controlled properties (including humidity, gas introduction, and temperature). It can be used to protect air-sensitive materials or to expose them to contaminants in a controlled way for degradation studies. To characterize the properties of the chamber, we outline a simple procedure to determine the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) using relative humidity as measured by a standard humidity sensor. This standard operating procedure, using a 50% infill density of polylactic acid (PLA), results in a chamber that can be used for weeks without any significant loss of device properties. The versatility and ease of use of the chamber allows it to be adapted to any characterization condition that requires a compact-controlled atmosphere.

Current-voltage Measurements:
This chamber is designed to allow for the testing of an air-sensitive diode device, such as an organic or perovskite solar cell or a light-emitting diode. It can act as a reusable, temporary encapsulation or as a method of introducing contaminants to perform controlled degradation testing. The current density-voltage (JV) curves shown here were measured using a ZIF test board attach...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A 3D-printed Chamber for Organic Optoelectronic Device Degradation Testing at JoVE.com

A 3D-printed Chamber for Organic Optoelectronic Device Degradation Testing

Here, we present a protocol for the design, manufacture, and use of a simple, versatile 3D-printed and controlled atmospheric chamber for the optical and electrical characterization of air-sensitive organic optoelectronic devices.

In this manuscript, we outline the manufacture of a small, portable, easy-to-use atmospheric chamber for organic and perovskite optoelectronic devices, ...

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JoVE Journal

Engineering

7.9K Views.  McMaster University. Here, we present a protocol for the design, manufacture, and use of a simple, versatile 3D-printed and controlled atmospheric chamber for the optical and electrical characterization of air-sensitive organic optoelectronic devices.

Video: A 3D-printed Chamber for Organic Optoelectronic Device Degradation Testing

Controlling the Size, Shape and Stability of Supramolecular Polymers in Water

For aqueous based supramolecular polymers, the simultaneous control over shape, size and stability is very difficult1. At the same time, the ability to do so is highly important in view of a number of applications in functional soft matter including electronics, biomedical engineering, and sensors. In the past, successful strategies to control the size and shape of supramolecular polymers typically focused on the use of templates2,3, end cappers4 or selective solvent techniques5. 
Here we disclose a strategy based on self-assembling discotic amphiphiles that leads to the control over stack length and shape of ordered, chiral columnar aggregates. By balancing electrostatic repulsive interactions on the hydrophilic rim and attractive non-covalent forces within the hydrophobic core of the polymerizing building block, we manage to create small and discrete spherical objects6,7. Increasing the salt concentration to screen the charges induces a sphere-to-rod transition. Intriguingly, this transition is expressed in an increase of cooperativity in the temperature-dependent self-assembly mechanism, and more stable aggregates are obtained. 
For our study we select a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide (BTA) core connected to a hydrophilic metal chelate via a hydrophobic, fluorinated L-phenylalanine based spacer (Scheme 1). The metal chelate selected is a Gd(III)-DTPA complex that contains two overall remaining charges per complex and necessarily two counter ions. The one-dimensional growth of the aggregate is directed by &pi;-&pi; stacking and intermolecular hydrogen bonding. However, the electrostatic, repulsive forces that arise from the charges on the Gd(III)-DTPA complex start limiting the one-dimensional growth of the BTA-based discotic once a certain size is reached. At millimolar concentrations the formed aggregate has a spherical shape and a diameter of around 5 nm as inferred from 1H-NMR spectroscopy, small angle X-ray scattering, and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). The strength of the electrostatic repulsive interactions between molecules can be reduced by increasing the salt concentration of the buffered solutions. This screening of the charges induces a transition from spherical aggregates into elongated rods with a length &gt; 25 nm. Cryo-TEM allows to visualise the changes in shape and size. In addition, CD spectroscopy permits to derive the mechanistic details of the self-assembly processes before and after the addition of salt. Importantly, the cooperativity -a key feature that dictates the physical properties of the produced supramolecular polymers- increases dramatically upon screening the electrostatic interactions. This increase in cooperativity results in a significant increase in the molecular weight of the formed supramolecular polymers in water.

The goal of this experiment is to determine and control the size, shape and stability of self-assembled discotic amphiphiles in water. For aqueous based supramolecular polymers such level of control is very difficult. We apply a strategy using both repulsive and attractive interactions. The experimental techniques applied to characterize this system are broadly applicable.

For aqueous based supramolecular polymers, the simultaneous control over shape, size and stability is very difficult1. At the same time, the ability to do ...

Characterization of Recombination Effects in a Liquid Ionization Chamber Used for the Dosimetry of a Radiosurgical Accelerator

Most modern radiation therapy devices allow the use of very small fields, either through beamlets in Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) or via stereotactic radiotherapy where positioning accuracy allows delivering very high doses per fraction in a small volume of the patient. Dosimetric measurements on medical accelerators are conventionally realized using air-filled ionization chambers. However, in small beams these are subject to nonnegligible perturbation effects. This study focuses on liquid ionization chambers, which offer advantages in terms of spatial resolution and low fluence perturbation. Ion recombination effects are investigated for the microLion detector (PTW) used with the Cyberknife system (Accuray). The method consists of performing a series of water tank measurements at different source-surface distances, and applying corrections to the liquid detector readings based on simultaneous gaseous detector measurements. This approach facilitates isolating the recombination effects arising from the high density of the liquid sensitive medium and obtaining correction factors to apply to the detector readings. The main difficulty resides in achieving a sufficient level of accuracy in the setup to be able to detect small changes in the chamber response.

A growing number of radiation therapy devices offer the advantage of delivering the dose through very small beams to the tumor, allowing for increased conformity and higher doses per fraction. Many different detectors can be used for the dosimetry of these small fields. In the present study, the effect of ion recombination is investigated for a liquid ionization chamber using a stereotactic radiation therapy system.

Most modern radiation therapy devices allow the use of very small fields, either through beamlets in Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) or via ...

Methods for Measuring the Orientation and Rotation Rate of 3D-printed Particles in Turbulence

Experimental methods are presented for measuring the rotational and translational motion of anisotropic particles in turbulent fluid flows. 3D printing technology is used to fabricate particles with slender arms connected at a common center. Shapes explored are crosses (two perpendicular rods), jacks (three perpendicular rods), triads (three rods in triangular planar symmetry), and tetrads (four arms in tetrahedral symmetry). Methods for producing on the order of 10,000 fluorescently dyed particles are described. Time-resolved measurements of their orientation and solid-body rotation rate are obtained from four synchronized videos of their motion in a turbulent flow between oscillating grids with R&#955; = 91. In this relatively low-Reynolds number flow, the advected particles are small enough that they approximate ellipsoidal tracer particles. We present results of time-resolved 3D trajectories of position and orientation of the particles as well as measurements of their rotation rates.

We use 3D printing to fabricate anisotropic particles in the shapes of jacks, crosses, tetrads, and triads, whose alignments and rotations in turbulent fluid flow can be measured from multiple simultaneous video images.

Experimental methods are presented for measuring the rotational and translational motion of anisotropic particles in turbulent fluid flows. 3D printing ...

Testing of Nanoparticle Release from a Composite Containing Nanomaterial Using a Chamber System

With the rapid development of nanotechnology as one of the most important technologies in the 21st century, interest in the safety of consumer products containing nanomaterials is also increasing. Evaluating the nanomaterial release from products containing nanomaterials is a crucial step in assessing the safety of these products, and has resulted in several international efforts to develop consistent and reliable technologies for standardizing the evaluation of nanomaterial release. In this study, the release of nanomaterials from products containing nanomaterials is evaluated using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, optical particle counter, and sampling ports to collect filter samples for electron microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system is tested using an abrasor and disc-type nanocomposite material specimens to determine whether the nanomaterial release is repeatable and consistent within an acceptable range. The test results indicate that the total number of particles in each test is within 20% from the average after several trials. The release trends are similar and they show very good repeatability. Therefore, the proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing of products containing nanomaterials.

Nanoparticle release is tested using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, an optical particle counter and sampling ports to collect filter samples for microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing with a repeatable and consistent data range.

With the rapid development of nanotechnology as one of the most important technologies in the 21st century, interest in the safety of consumer products ...

Scanning Light Scattering Profiler (SLPS) Based Methodology to Quantitatively Evaluate Forward and Backward Light Scattering from Intraocular Lenses

The scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) methodology has been developed for the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward light scattering from intraocular lenses (IOLs) using goniophotometer principles. This protocol describes the SLSP platform and how it employs a 360&#176; rotational photodetector sensor that is scanned around an IOL sample while recording the intensity and location of scattered light as it passes through the IOL medium. The SLSP platform can be used to predict, non-clinically, the propensity for current and novel IOL designs and materials to induce light scatter. Non-clinical evaluation of light scattering properties of IOLs can significantly reduce the number of patient complaints related to unwanted glare, glistening, optical defects, poor image quality, and other phenomena associated with the unintended light scattering. Future studies should be conducted to correlate SLSP data with clinical results to help identify which measured light scatter is most problematic for patients that have undergone cataract surgery subsequent to IOL implantation.

Scanning Light Scattering Profiler SLPS Based Methodology to Quantitatively Evaluate Forward and Backward Light Scattering from Intraocular Lenses

This protocol describes the scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) that enables the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward scattering of light from intraocular lenses (IOLs) using goniophotometer principles.

The scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) methodology has been developed for the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward light ...

Subsurface Defect Localization by Structured Heating Using Laser Projected Photothermal Thermography

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering thermal wave fields that are disturbed by the defect. This effect is measured and used to locate the defect. We form the destructively interfering wave fields by using a modified projector. The original light engine of the projector is replaced with a fiber-coupled high-power diode laser. Its beam is shaped and aligned to the projector&#39;s spatial light modulator and optimized for optimal optical throughput and homogeneous projection by first characterizing the beam profile, and, second, correcting it mechanically and numerically. A high-performance infrared (IR) camera is set up according to the tight geometrical situation (including corrections of the geometrical image distortions) and the requirement to detect weak temperature oscillations at the sample surface. Data acquisition can be performed once a synchronization between the individual thermal wave field sources, the scanning stage, and the IR camera is established by using a dedicated experimental setup which needs to be tuned to the specific material being investigated. During data post-processing, the relevant information on the presence of a defect below the surface of the sample is extracted. It is retrieved from the oscillating part of the acquired thermal radiation coming from the so-called depletion line of the sample surface. The exact location of the defect is deduced from the analysis of the spatial-temporal shape of these oscillations in a final step. The method is reference-free and very sensitive to changes within the thermal wave field. So far, the method has been tested with steel samples but is applicable to different materials as well, in particular to temperature sensitive materials.

This method aims at locating vertical subsurface defects. Here, we couple a laser with a spatial light modulator and trigger its video input to heat a sample surface deterministically with two anti-phased modulated lines while acquiring highly resolved thermal images. The defect position is retrieved from evaluating thermal wave interference minima.

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering ...

Preparation of Liquid Crystal Networks for Macroscopic Oscillatory Motion Induced by Light

A strategy based on doped liquid crystalline networks is described to create mechanical self-sustained oscillations of plastic films under continuous light irradiation. The photo-excitation of dopants that can quickly dissipate light into heat, coupled with anisotropic thermal expansion and self-shadowing of the film, gives rise to the self-sustained deformation. The oscillations observed are influenced by the dimensions and the modulus of the film, and by the directionality and intensity of the light. The system developed offers applications in energy conversion and harvesting for soft-robotics and automated systems.
The general method described here consists of creating free-standing liquid crystalline films and characterizing the mechanical and thermal effects observed. The molecular alignment is achieved using alignment layers (rubbed polyimide), commonly used in the display manufacturing industry. To obtain actuators with large deformation, the mesogens are aligned and polymerized in a splay/bend configuration, i.e., with the director of the liquid crystals (LCs) going gradually from planar to homeotropic through the film thickness. Upon irradiation, the mechanical and thermal oscillations obtained are monitored with a high-speed camera. The results are further quantified by image analysis using an image processing program.

The goal of the protocol is to create liquid crystalline polymer films that can mechanically oscillate under continuous light irradiation. We describe in great detail the conception of free-standing films, from the liquid crystal alignment method to the photo-actuation. The experimental protocol applied to prepare this material is broadly applicable.

A strategy based on doped liquid crystalline networks is described to create mechanical self-sustained oscillations of plastic films under continuous ...

Atmospheric Pressure Fabrication of Large-Sized Single-Layer Rectangular SnSe Flakes

Tin selenide (SnSe) belongs to the family of layered metal chalcogenide materials with a buckled structure like phosphorene, and has shown potential for applications in two-dimensional nanoelectronics devices. Although many methods to synthesize SnSe nanocrystals have been developed, a simple way to fabricate large-sized single-layer SnSe flakes remains a great challenge. Herein, we show the experimental method to directly grow large-sized single-layer rectangular SnSe flakes on commonly used SiO2/Si insulating substrates using a straightforward two-step fabrication method in an atmospheric pressure quartz tube furnace system. The single-layer rectangular SnSe flakes with an average thickness of ~6.8 &#197; and lateral dimensions of about 30 &#181;m &#215; 50 &#181;m were fabricated by a combination of vapor transport deposition technique and nitrogen etching route. We characterized the morphology, microstructure, and electrical properties of the rectangular SnSe flakes and obtained excellent crystallinity and good electronic properties. This article about the two-step fabrication method can help researchers grow other similar two-dimensional, large-sized, single-layer materials using an atmospheric pressure system.

A protocol is presented demonstrating a two-step fabrication technique to grow large-sized single-layer rectangular shaped SnSe flakes on low-cost SiO2/Si dielectrics wafers in an atmospheric pressure quartz tube furnace system.

Tin selenide (SnSe) belongs to the family of layered metal chalcogenide materials with a buckled structure like phosphorene, and has shown potential for ...

A Standard and Reliable Method to Fabricate Two-Dimensional Nanoelectronics

Two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted huge attention due to their unique properties and potential applications. Since wafer scale synthesis of 2D materials is still in nascent stages, scientists cannot fully rely on traditional semiconductor techniques for related research. Delicate processes from locating the materials to electrode definition need to be well controlled. In this article, a universal fabrication protocol required in manufacturing nanoscale electronics, such as 2D quasi-heterojunction bipolar transistors (Q-HBT), and 2D back-gated transistors are demonstrated. This protocol includes the determination of material position, electron beam lithography (EBL), metal electrode definition, et al. A step by step narrative of the fabrication procedures for these devices are also presented. Furthermore, results show that each of the fabricated devices has achieved high performance with high repeatability. This work reveals a comprehensive description of process flow for preparing 2D nano-electronics, enables the research groups to access this information, and pave the way toward future electronics.

The article aims to introduce a standard and reliable fabrication procedure for the development of future low dimensional nanoelectronics.

Two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted huge attention due to their unique properties and potential applications. Since wafer scale synthesis of 2D ...

Method Development for Contactless Resonant Cavity Dielectric Spectroscopic Studies of Cellulosic Paper

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of data that can be obtained from an individual sample and renders it difficult to produce statistically relevant data for unique and rare materials. Resonant cavity dielectric spectroscopy is a non-destructive, contactless technique which can simultaneously interrogate both sides of a sheeted material and provide measurements which are suitable for statistical interpretations. This offers analysts the ability to quickly discriminate between sheeted materials based on composition and storage history. In this methodology article, we demonstrate how contactless resonant cavity dielectric spectroscopy may be used to differentiate between paper analytes of varying fiber species compositions, to determine the relative age of the paper, and to detect and quantify the amount of post-consumer waste (PCW) recycled fiber content in manufactured office paper.

A protocol for the non-destructive analysis of the fiber content and relative age of paper.

The current analytical techniques for characterizing printing and graphic arts substrates are largely ex situ and destructive. This limits the amount of ...