The protocols reported in this manuscript were made possible by the accumulated contributions of previous fellows of Dr. Warren Zapol&#39;s laboratory of Anesthesia Research in Critical Care, Department of Anesthesia at Massachusetts General Hospital. We acknowledge the contribution of Drs. Akito Nakagawa, Francesco Zadek, Emanuele Vassena, Chong Lei, Yasuko Nagasaka, Ester Spagnolli and Emanuele Rezoagli.

L.B. receives salary support from K23 HL128882/NHLBI NIH as principal investigator for his work on hemolysis and nitric oxide. LB receives grants from "Fast Grants for COVID-19 research" at Mercatus Center of George Mason University and from iNO Therapeutics LLC. B.Y. is supported by grants from an NHLBI/#R21HL130956 and DOD/The Geneva Foundation (W81XWH-19-S-CCC1, Log DM190244). B.Y. received patents at MGH on the electric generation of nitric oxide.
L.B. and B.Y. have filed patent application for NO delivery in COVID-19 disease PCT application number: PCT/US2021/036269 filed on June 7, 2021. RWC receives salary support from Unitaid as the principal investigator for technology development aimed at decentralized diagnosis of tuberculosis in children located in low-resource settings.

Due to the high sensitivity, chemiluminescence-based assays for the determination of NO and related compounds have a high risk of NO2- contamination. Each reagent (especially the NO2- blocking solution) and dilutant (including ddH2O) used in the experiment should be tested for its NO2- content to correct for background signal. Nitrite is extremely reactive with a half-life in whole blood around 10 min and rapidly generates NO3-</...

Since Salvador Moncada and Nobel laureates Robert Furchgott, Louis Ignarro, and Ferid Murad identified nitric oxide (NO) as the previously known endothelial-derived relaxation factor (EDRF), the central role of NO has been established in several key mechanisms spanning throughout vascular biology, neurosciences, metabolism, and host response1,2,3,4,5,6,7. Exogenous administration of NO gas has become an established treatment for respiratory failure due to pulmonary hypertension in the newborn8. Nitric oxide gas has also been investigated for treatment of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection, malaria and other infective diseases, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and for prevention of acute kidney injury in patients undergoing cardiac surgery9,10,11,12. The need for precise measurement techniques to assess the levels of NO, its metabolites, and those of its target proteins and compounds arises from both mechanistic and interventional studies.
Due to its high reactivity, NO may undergo different reactions depending on the biological matrix in which it is produced and/or released. In the absence of hemoglobin (Hb) or other oxy-hemoproteins, NO is oxidized almost completely to nitrite (NO2-).
2NO + O2 &#8594; 2NO2
NO2 + NO&#160;&#8594; N2O3
N2O3 + H2O&#160;&#8594; NO2-&#160;+ H+
NO first undergoes autoxidation with molecular oxygen (O2) to yield nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and reacts with NO2 itself to generate dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3). One molecule of N2O3 reacts with water (H2O) to form two molecules of NO2- and a proton (H+)13. Within whole blood14,15, NO and NO2- are rapidly converted to nitrate (NO3-) as these molecules react avidly with the oxidized heme groups of Hb [Hb-Fe2+-O2 or oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb)] to yield NO3-. This reaction is coupled with the transition of the heme group to the ferric state [Hb-Fe3+ or methemoglobin (metHb)]:
Hb-Fe2+-O2 + NO&#160;&#8594; Hb-Fe3+ + NO3-
The red blood cell (RBC) barrier and the space immediately adjacent to the endothelium are the main factors limiting this reaction and allowing a small portion of the NO released by the endothelium to act as EDRF16,17. In fact, cell-free Hb in the circulation is known to disrupt vasodilation in experimental and clinical settings17,18. Within the RBC, depending on oxygenation and NO2- concentration, a portion of NO reacts with deoxyhemoglobin (Hb-Fe2+) to form iron-nitrosyl Hb (Hb-Fe2+-NO or HbNO):
Hb-Fe2+ + NO&#160;&#8594; Hb-Fe2+-NO
In the RBC15,17, NO2- can form Hb-Fe3+ by reducing Hb-Fe2+ leading to the release of NO, which in turn binds Hb-Fe2+-O2 (preferentially) or Hb-Fe2+.
The generation of NO-derivatives should not be considered strictly unidirectional as NO can be regenerated from NO2-&#160;and NO3- in various tissues and by different enzymes (e.g., by intestinal bacteria or within mitochondria, particularly under hypoxic conditions)19,20.
A variable amount of NO produced (or administered) leads to the downstream generation of S-nitrosothiols, mainly by thiol transnitrosation from N2O3 in the presence of a nucleophile creating a NO+ donor intermediate (Nuc-NO+-NO2-):
N2O3 + RS- &#8594; RS-NO + NO2-
Another possibility for S-nitrosothiols generation is nitrosylation of oxidized thiols (NO reacting with an oxidized thiol):
RS&#8226; + NO&#160;&#8594; RS-NO
This mechanism and direct thiol oxidation by NO2 might be possible only in very specific conditions which are described elsewhere21. S-nitrosothiols range from light molecules like S-nitrosoglutathione to large thiol-containing proteins. S-nitrosohemoglobin (S-NO-Hb) is formed by nitrosation of a thiol group of a conserved cysteine residue in the &#946;-chain (&#946;93C)22.
The generation and metabolism of S-nitrosothiols are part of important regulatory mechanisms. Examples include regulation of glutathione, caspases, N-methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA), and ryanodine receptors23,24,25,26,27,28. Previously considered as a major mediator of NO biology in vivo, nitrosated albumin (S-nitroso-albumin) seems to be a NO/NO+ transporter without any specific additional biological activity29.
When measuring the concentration of NO and its derivatives from a specific biological sample within a biological matrix, it is important to consider characteristics such as acidity, oxygenation, temperature, and the presence of reagents. Examples include administered exogenous NO donors and, in the setting of acute inflammation, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) reacting with NO2 leading to generation of supernormal concentration of free radicals like peroxynitrite (ONOO-)21. In addition to the analytical method that is employed, the preanalytical phase of sample preparation and storage is fundamental. Downstream reactions that do not represent the in vivo NO activity shall be predicted, considered, and blocked. A valid example is the instability of S-NO-Hb, requiring a dedicated treatment of blood samples when it is targeted for measurement22.
Chemiluminescence-based assays are the gold standard for detecting the levels of NO and its main metabolites [NO2-, NO3-, S-NO and iron-nitrosyl complexes (Fe-NO)] in any biological fluid, including tissue homogenates30,31. These methods rely upon the chemiluminescence detector (CLD), a device that houses the reaction of NO with ozone (O3), generating NO2 in an excited state (NO2&#8226;). Relaxation of NO2&#8226; causes emission of a photon of light that is detected by a photomultiplier tube, generating an electric signal that is directly proportional to the NO content of the sampled gas mixture32. A simplified schematic of the CLD is represented.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63107/63107fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Simplified schematic of a chemiluminescence detector for nitric oxide gas. Chemiluminescence-based detection of nitric oxide (NO) is the stoichiometric generation of one photon per NO gas molecule that is introduced in the chemiluminescence detector (CLD). The chemiluminescence reaction is obtained in a designated chamber supplied with ozone (O3) from an internal generator, which is kept at negative pressure by connection with an external pump, allowing continuous and constant inflow of sample gas. The generation of O3 requires diatomic oxygen (O2) that is supplied by a dedicated O2 tank connected with the CLD (other manufacturers provide CLDs operating with ambient air). Within the reaction chamber, each molecule of NO gas contained in the sampled gas reacts with oxygen to yield one molecule of nitrogen dioxide in the activated state (NO2*). By returning to its ground state, each NO2* molecule emits one photon that is detected by a photomultiplier tube (PMT) located adjacent to the reaction chamber. The PMT with the associated amplifier and central processing unit produces a signal proportional to the photon count and the number of NO molecules in the reaction chamber. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63107/63107fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The sample inlet of the CLD can be connected to a glassware system containing a reaction chamber for liquid samples. The system is continuously purged with an inert gas such as nitrogen, helium, or argon, transferring NO from the reaction chamber to the CLD. Liquid-phase samples are injected through a dedicated membrane into the purge vessel.
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63107/63107fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Structure of a purge vessel for chemiluminescence-based detection of nitric oxide gas&#160;The purge vessel (right) allows for the detection of nitric oxide (NO) gas or any other compound that can be readily converted to NO gas when released from a liquid phase reagent. The inert gas inlet is connected to a source (tank) of an inert gas such as Argon, Xeon, or diatomic nitrogen (N2). The needle valve (opens to the left) is used for pressure control within the purge vessel and can be completely removed to clean the vessel. The injection port is covered by a cap with a membrane septum for sample injection. The membrane should be replaced often. A heated jacket surrounds the reaction chamber and is connected to a hot water bath to perform the VCl3 in HCl assay. The purge vessel outlet is connected to the chemiluminescence detector (CLD) or to the NaOH trap (required for VCl3 in HCl assays). To drain the reaction chamber content, first close the stopcocks at the inert gas inlet and the purge vessel outlet, close the needle valve, remove the cap at the injection port and finally open the stopcock at the drain. The NaOH trap (left) is required to be placed inline between the purge vessel and the CLD if the VCl3 in HCl assay is performed because of the corrosivity of HCl. The connection to the CLD always requires an intense field dielectric (IFD) filter to be placed between the CLD and the output of the purge vessel (or the NaOH trap, if used). The IFD filter removes airborne particles and stops liquid from passing through the purge vessel. PTFE = polytetrafluoroethylene. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63107/63107fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
As a consequence, any compound that can be converted to NO through a specific and controlled chemical reaction can be detected with high sensitivity in any biological fluid and tissue homogenate24. Direct measurement of gas-phase NO through chemiluminescence is performed in both experimental and clinical settings. These techniques are extensively described elsewhere33,34,35. Measurement of NO2-, S-nitrosothiols, S-nitrosated proteins, and Fe-NOs can be performed by adding samples in a reaction mixture with triiodide (I3-), which stoichiometrically releases NO gas from all these compounds:
I3- &#8594; I2 + I-
2NO2&#8722; +2I&#8722; +4H+ &#8594; 2NO + I2 +2H2O
I3&#8722; + 2RS-NO &#8594; 3I&#8722; + RSSR + 2NO+
2NO+ + 2I&#8722; &#8594; 2NO + I2
while I3- does not react with NO3-15. Precise measurements of each compound are made possible by pre-treatment of sample aliquots with acidified sulfanilamide (AS) with or without mercuric chloride (HgCl2). Specifically, pre-treatment with AS removes all NO2- content. As a consequence, the NO content measured by the CLD only reflects the sum of S-NOs and Fe-NOs concentration. Injection of HgCl2 in a sample aliquot before AS injection causes NO2- to be released by S-NO. Treatment with AS (leading to NO2- removal) ensures that the measured NO content only reflects the concentration of Fe-NOs. A series of subtractions between the assessments allow to calculate the precise concentration of the three NO derivatives22.
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63107/63107fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Steps in sample preparation for the I3- in acetic acid chemiluminescence assay. The sequential steps for preparation of the I3- in acetic acid chemiluminescence assay are illustrated. Use of light-protected centrifuge tubes is required. Tubes 1, 2, and 3 are those used to prepare for the assay. Another sample aliquot (tube 4) is needed for the VCl3 in HCl assay if the measurement of nitrate (NO3-) is required. Steps are indicated by numbers in red. Prefill (Step 1) as indicated with phosphate buffer saline (PBS) or HgCl2 before adding the sample volume. Add the sample volume (2) as indicated, vortex, and incubate for 2 min at room temperature (RT). Add (3) PBS or acidified sulfanilamide (AS) as indicated,vortex, and incubate for 3 min at RT. Run the assay (4). The concentration measured by the assay is the sum of the concentration of the compounds reported under each tube. Tube number 1 will allow measurements of nitrite (NO2-), S-nitrosothiols (S-NO), and iron-nitrosyl complexes (Fe-NOs) as a single signal. For nitrate (NO3-) measurement, samples shall be run with both I3- in acetic acid and VCl3 in HCl assays, and the value obtained from tube 1 should be subtracted from the one obtained from tube 4. *suggested quantities to be used for Hb analysis for determination of residual NO2-, S-nitrosohemoglobin and iron-nitrosyl-hemoglobin. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63107/63107fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
For NO3- measurement, Vanadium (III) chloride (VCl3) in hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used for conversion of NO3- to NO in the purge vessel in order to measure NO3- stoichiometrically with the CLD:
2 NO3-+ 3V+3 + 2H2O&#160;&#8594; 2NO + 3VO2+ + 4H+
To achieve a sufficiently fast conversion, the reaction needs to be performed at 90-95 &#176;C. Reduction from NO3- to NO2- is coupled with reduction of NO2- to NO by HCl. Vanadium metal also reduces S-NOs liberating their NO moiety22,36. The final concentration obtained by CLD with VCl3 in HCl reflects the aggregate concentration of NO3-, NO2, and other nitrosated compounds. Subtraction of the latter value from the concentration yielded with CLD with I3- allows for the calculation of NO3- concentration36,37 (Figure 3).
In the NO consumption assay, the continuous release of NO in the purge vessel by NO donors like (Z)-1-[2-(2-aminoethyl)-N-(2-ammonioethyl)amino]diazen-1-ium-1,2-diolate (DETA-NONOate) generates a stable signal allowing quantifying cell-free oxyHb in the injected samples. The amount of NO consumed in the purge vessel is in a stoichiometric relationship with the amount of oxyHb in the sample38.
Protocols for measurement of NO2-, NO3-, S-nitrosothiols, iron-nitrosyl complexes, and NO consumption by cell-free Hb in plasma samples are illustrated. Studies on NO in the RBC environment require specific sample treatment followed by exclusion chromatography to measure extremely fragile S-NO-Hb and Hb-NO coupled with the determination of total Hb concentration15,22. Sample preparation is instrumental in correcting measurement. Pre-existence of NO2- in H2O and release of NO2- during the assay can lead to measurement of artificially higher concentrations of NO derivatives such as S-NO-Hb14,39. Important aspects of sample preparation are also presented.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic Acid</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>45754</td>
			<td>500 mL - liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antifoam B Emulsion</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A5757</td>
			<td>250 mL - liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DETA NONOate</td>
			<td>Cayman</td>
			<td>82120</td>
			<td>10 mg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gibco DPBS (1x) no calcium, no magnesium</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>14190144</td>
			<td>500 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydroochloric Acid 37% (1 M)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>258148</td>
			<td>500 mL - liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iodine</td>
			<td>SAFC</td>
			<td>207772</td>
			<td>100 g - solid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kimwipes</td>
			<td>Kimtech</td>
			<td>34155</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mercury (II) Chloride ACS reagent&#62; 99.5%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>215465</td>
			<td>100 g - solid (dissolve in water)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mili-Q Water Purification System</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Model 705 RN 50 &#956;L syringe</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>80530</td>
			<td>Microliter syringe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Model 802 N 25 &#956;L Syringe</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>84854</td>
			<td>Microliter syringe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-ethylmaleimide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>4260</td>
			<td>25 g - crystalline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitric Oxide Analyzer + Bundle Software - Purge Vessel</td>
			<td>Zysense</td>
			<td>NOA 280i</td>
			<td>Chemiluminescence Detector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nonidet p-40&#160; (NP-40)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>85125</td>
			<td>10% - 500 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) ACS reagent&#8805; 99%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>244023</td>
			<td>100 g - powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Iodide ACS reagent&#62; 99%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>221945</td>
			<td>100 g - solid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Nitrite cryst. For analysis EMSURE ACS</td>
			<td>Supelco</td>
			<td>105067</td>
			<td>250 g - crystalline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PowerGen 125</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-359-251</td>
			<td>Mechanic Homogenizer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RV3 Two Stage Rotary Vane Pump</td>
			<td>Edwards</td>
			<td>A65201906</td>
			<td>Vacuum Pump - Bundled with analyzer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Heparin - BD Hemogard Clo</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>BD367871</td>
			<td>75 USP Units</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide anhydrous ACS reagent &#8805; 97%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>795429</td>
			<td>1 kg - pelletts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Nitrate ACS reagent &#8805; 99%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>221341</td>
			<td>500 g - powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium nitrite &#8805; 99%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S2252</td>
			<td>500 g - crystalline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sulfanilamide &#8805; 98%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S9251</td>
			<td>100 g - solid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vanadium (III) Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>112393</td>
			<td>25 g - solid - Caution (exothermic)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whatman 1 Filter Paper</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>WHA10010155</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

chemiluminescence-based assays for detection of nitric oxide and its derivatives from autoxidation and nitrosated compounds

Nitric oxide (NO) activity in vivo is the combined results of its direct effects, the action of its derivatives generated from NO autoxidation, and the effects of nitrosated compounds. Measuring NO metabolites is essential to studying NO activity both at vascular levels and in other tissues, especially in the experimental settings where exogenous NO is administered. Ozone-based chemiluminescence assays allow precise measurements of NO and NO metabolites in both fluids (including plasma, tissue homogenates, cell cultures) and gas mixtures (e.g., exhaled breath). NO reacts with ozone to generate nitrogen dioxide in an excited state. The consequent light emission allows photodetection and the generation of an electric signal reflecting the NO content of the sample. Aliquots from the same sample can be used to measure specific NO metabolites, such as nitrate, nitrite, S-nitrosothiols, and iron-nitrosyl complexes. In addition, NO consumed by cell-free hemoglobin is also quantified with chemiluminescence analysis. An illustration of all these techniques is provided.

The NO-consumption by cell-free Hb assay was used in samples containing known concentrations of cell-free oxyHb (Figure 4). As one heme of oxyHb stoichiometrically releases one NO molecule in the assay, purified cell-free oxyHb is used to build the calibration curve for the assay (Supplemental Figure 3).
The dose-response relationship between cell-free Hb (measured with a colorimetric assay) and NO consumption in patients coming off cardiopulmonar...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Chemiluminescence-based Assays for Detection of Nitric Oxide and its Derivatives from Autoxidation and Nitrosated Compounds at JoVE.com

Chemiluminescence-based Assays for Detection of Nitric Oxide and its Derivatives from Autoxidation and Nitrosated Compounds

Here, we present protocols for detecting nitric oxide and its biologically relevant derivatives using chemiluminescence-based assays with high sensitivity.

Nitric oxide (NO) activity in vivo is the combined results of its direct effects, the action of its derivatives generated from NO autoxidation, and the ...

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3.7K Views.  Massachusetts General Hospital. Here, we present protocols for detecting nitric oxide and its biologically relevant derivatives using chemiluminescence-based assays with high sensitivity. 

Video: Chemiluminescence-based Assays for Detection of Nitric Oxide and its Derivatives from Autoxidation and Nitrosated Compounds

Detection and Genogrouping of Noroviruses from Children's Stools By Taqman One-step RT-PCR

Noroviruses (NoVs) are the leading cause of outbreaks of sporadic acute gastroenteritis worldwide in humans of all ages. They are important cause of hospitalizations in children with a public health impact similar to that of Rotavirus. NoVs are RNA viruses of great genetic diversity and there is a continuous appearance of new strains. Five genogroups are recognized; GI and GII with their many genotypes and subtypes being the most important for human infection. However, the diagnosis of these two genotypes remains problematic, delaying diagnosis and treatment. 1, 2, 3
For RNA extraction from stool specimens the most commonly used method is the QIAmp Viral RNA commercial kit from Qiagen. This method combines the binding properties of a silica gel membrane, buffers that control RNases and provide optimum binding of the RNA to the column together with the speed of microspin. This method is simple, fast and reliable and is carried out in a few steps that are detailed in the description provided by the manufacturer. 
 Norovirus is second only to rotavirus as the most common cause of diarrhea. Norovirus diagnosis should be available in all studies on pathogenesis of diarrhea as well as in outbreaks or individual diarrhea cases. At present however norovirus diagnosis is restricted to only a few centers due to the lack of simple methods of diagnosis. This delays diagnosis and treatment 1, 2, 3. In addition, due to costs and regulated transportation of corrosive buffers within and between countries use of these manufactured kits poses logistical problems. As a result, in this protocol we describe an alternative, economic, in-house method which is based on the original Boom et al. method4 which uses the nucleic acid binding properties of silica particles together with the anti-nuclease properties of guanidinium thiocyanate.
For the detection and genogrouping (GI and GII) of NoVs isolates from stool specimens, several RT-PCR protocols utilizing different targets have been developed. The consensus is that an RT-PCR using TaqMan chemistry would be the best molecular technique for diagnosis, because it combines high sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility with high throughput and ease of use. Here we describe an assay targeting the open reading frame 1 (ORF1)-ORF2 junction region; the most conserved region of the NoV genome and hence most suitable for diagnosis. For further genetic analysis a conventional RT-PCR that targets the highly variable N-terminal-shell from the major protein of the capsid (Region C) using primers originally described by Kojima et al. 5 is detailed. Sequencing of the PCR product from the conventional PCR enables the differentiation of genotypes belonging to the GI and GII genogroups.

Detection and Genogrouping of Noroviruses from Children&#039;s Stools By Taqman One-step RT-PCR

A One-Step RT-PCR assay for detection and genogroup identification of Norovirus isolates from children&#x2019;s stools, that utilizes primers and TaqMan probes specific to the open reading frame 1 (ORF1)-ORF2 junction region, the most conserved region of the Norovirus genome is described. A non-commercial, cost-effective RNA extraction method is detailed.

Noroviruses (NoVs) are the leading cause of outbreaks of sporadic acute gastroenteritis worldwide in humans of all ages. They are important cause of ...

Production and Detection of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Cancers

Reactive oxygen species include a number of molecules that damage DNA and RNA and oxidize proteins and lipids (lipid peroxydation). These reactive molecules contain an oxygen and include H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), NO (nitric oxide), O2- (oxide anion), peroxynitrite (ONOO-), hydrochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydroxyl radical (OH-).
Oxidative species are produced not only under pathological situations (cancers, ischemic/reperfusion, neurologic and cardiovascular pathologies, infectious diseases, inflammatory diseases 1, autoimmune diseases 2, etc&hellip;) but also during physiological (non-pathological) situations such as cellular metabolism 3, 4. Indeed, ROS play important roles in many cellular signaling pathways (proliferation, cell activation 5, 6, migration 7 etc..). ROS can be detrimental (it is then referred to as "oxidative and nitrosative stress") when produced in high amounts in the intracellular compartments and cells generally respond to ROS by upregulating antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione (GSH) that protects them by converting dangerous free radicals to harmless molecules (i.e. water). Vitamins C and E have also been described as ROS scavengers (antioxidants).
Free radicals are beneficial in low amounts 3. Macrophage and neutrophils-mediated immune responses involve the production and release of NO, which inhibits viruses, pathogens and tumor proliferation 8. NO also reacts with other ROS and thus, also has a role as a detoxifier (ROS scavenger). Finally NO acts on vessels to regulate blood flow which is important for the adaptation of muscle to prolonged exercise 9, 10. Several publications have also demonstrated that ROS are involved in insulin sensitivity 11, 12.
Numerous methods to evaluate ROS production are available. In this article we propose several simple, fast, and affordable assays; these assays have been validated by many publications and are routinely used to detect ROS or its effects in mammalian cells. While some of these assays detect multiple ROS, others detect only a single ROS.

Production and Detection of Reactive Oxygen Species ROS in Cancers

Here we propose simple methods to test and evaluate the presence of reactive oxygen species in cells.

Reactive oxygen species include a number of molecules that damage DNA and RNA and oxidize proteins and lipids (lipid peroxydation). These reactive ...

Analytical Techniques for Assaying Nitric Oxide Bioactivity

Nitric oxide (NO) is a diatomic free radical that is extremely short lived in biological systems (less than 1 second in circulating blood)1. NO may be considered one of the most important signaling molecules produced in our body, regulating essential functions including but not limited to regulation of blood pressure, immune response and neural communication. Therefore its accurate detection and quantification in biological matrices is critical to understanding the role of NO in health and disease. With such a short physiological half life of NO, alternative strategies for the detection of reaction products of NO biochemistry have been developed. The quantification of relevant NO metabolites in multiple biological compartments provides valuable information with regards to in vivo NO production, bioavailability and metabolism. Simply sampling a single compartment such as blood or plasma may not always provide an accurate assessment of whole body NO status, particularly in tissues. The ability to compare blood with select tissues in experimental animals will help bridge the gap between basic science and clinical medicine as far as diagnostic and prognostic utility of NO biomarkers in health and disease. Therefore, extrapolation of plasma or blood NO status to specific tissues of interest is no longer a valid approach. As a result, methods continue to be developed and validated which allow the detection and quantification of NO and NO-related products/metabolites in multiple compartments of experimental animals in vivo. The established paradigm of NO biochemistry from production by NO synthases to activation of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) to eventual oxidation to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-) may only represent part of NO's effects in vivo. The interaction of NO and NO-derived metabolites with protein thiols, secondary amines, and metals to form S-nitrosothiols (RSNOs), N-nitrosamines (RNNOs), and nitrosyl-heme respectively represent cGMP-independent effects of NO and are likely just as important physiologically as activation of sGC by NO. A true understanding of NO in physiology is derived from in vivo experiments sampling multiple compartments simultaneously. Nitric oxide (NO) methodology is a complex and often confusing science and the focus of many debates and discussion concerning NO biochemistry. The elucidation of new mechanisms and signaling pathways involving NO hinges on our ability to specifically, selectively and sensitively detect and quantify NO and all relevant NO products and metabolites in complex biological matrices. Here, we present a method for the rapid and sensitive analysis of nitrite and nitrate by HPLC as well as detection of free NO in biological samples using in vitro ozone based chemiluminescence with chemical derivitazation to determine molecular source of NO as well as ex vivo with organ bath myography.

The endogenous production of nitric oxide (NO) regulates a wide variety of biological functions. It is becoming increasingly clear that disruption or dysregulation of NO based signaling is involved in many human diseases. Methods to quantify relevant NO metabolites may provide novel diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers for human disease.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a diatomic free radical that is extremely short lived in biological systems (less than 1 second in circulating blood)1. NO may be ...

Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI) for Cancer Therapy Monitoring

In molecular imaging, positron emission tomography (PET) and optical imaging (OI) are two of the most important and thus most widely used modalities1-3. PET is characterized by its excellent sensitivity and quantification ability while OI is notable for non-radiation, relative low cost, short scanning time, high throughput, and wide availability to basic researchers. However, both modalities have their shortcomings as well. PET suffers from poor spatial resolution and high cost, while OI is mostly limited to preclinical applications because of its limited tissue penetration along with prominent scattering optical signals through the thickness of living tissues.
 Recently a bridge between PET and OI has emerged with the discovery of Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI)4-6. CLI is a new imaging modality that harnesses Cerenkov Radiation (CR) to image radionuclides with OI instruments. Russian Nobel laureate Alekseyevich Cerenkov and his colleagues originally discovered CR in 1934. It is a form of electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle travels at a superluminal speed in a dielectric medium7,8. The charged particle, whether positron or electron, perturbs the electromagnetic field of the medium by displacing the electrons in its atoms. After passing of the disruption photons are emitted as the displaced electrons return to the ground state. For instance, one 18F decay was estimated to produce an average of 3 photons in water5. 
 Since its emergence, CLI has been investigated for its use in a variety of preclinical applications including in vivo tumor imaging, reporter gene imaging, radiotracer development, multimodality imaging, among others4,5,9,10,11. The most important reason why CLI has enjoyed much success so far is that this new technology takes advantage of the low cost and wide availability of OI to image radionuclides, which used to be imaged only by more expensive and less available nuclear imaging modalities such as PET.
 Here, we present the method of using CLI to monitor cancer drug therapy. Our group has recently investigated this new application and validated its feasibility by a proof-of-concept study12. We demonstrated that CLI and PET exhibited excellent correlations across different tumor xenografts and imaging probes. This is consistent with the overarching principle of CR that CLI essentially visualizes the same radionuclides as PET. We selected Bevacizumab (Avastin; Genentech/Roche) as our therapeutic agent because it is a well-known angiogenesis inhibitor13,14. Maturation of this technology in the near future can be envisioned to have a significant impact on preclinical drug development, screening, as well as therapy monitoring of patients receiving treatments.

Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging CLI for Cancer Therapy Monitoring

Use of Cerenkov Luminescence Imaging (CLI) for monitoring preclinical cancer treatment is described here. This method takes advantage of Cerenkov Radiation (CR) and optical imaging (OI) to visualize radiolabeled probes and thus provides an alternative to PET in preclinical therapeutic monitoring and drug screening.

In  molecular imaging, positron emission tomography (PET) and optical imaging (OI)  are two of the most important and thus most widely used modalities1-3. ...

5/6th Nephrectomy in Combination with High Salt Diet and Nitric Oxide Synthase Inhibition to Induce Chronic Kidney Disease in the Lewis Rat

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global problem. Slowing CKD progression is a major health priority. Since CKD is characterized by complex derangements of homeostasis, integrative animal models are necessary to study development and progression of CKD. To study development of CKD and novel therapeutic interventions in CKD, we use the 5/6th nephrectomy ablation model, a well known experimental model of progressive renal disease, resembling several aspects of human CKD. The gross reduction in renal mass causes progressive glomerular and tubulo-interstitial injury, loss of remnant nephrons and development of systemic and glomerular hypertension. It is also associated with progressive intrarenal capillary loss, inflammation and glomerulosclerosis. Risk factors for CKD invariably impact on endothelial function. To mimic this, we combine removal of 5/6th of renal mass with nitric oxide (NO) depletion and a high salt diet. After arrival and acclimatization, animals receive a NO synthase inhibitor (NG-nitro-L-Arginine) (L-NNA) supplemented to drinking water (20 mg/L) for a period of 4 weeks, followed by right sided uninephrectomy. One week later, a subtotal nephrectomy (SNX) is performed on the left side. After SNX, animals are allowed to recover for two days followed by LNNA in drinking water (20 mg/L) for a further period of 4 weeks. A high salt diet (6%), supplemented in ground chow (see time line Figure 1), is continued throughout the experiment. Progression of renal failure is followed over time by measuring plasma urea, systolic blood pressure and proteinuria. By six weeks after SNX, renal failure has developed. Renal function is measured using 'gold standard' inulin and para-amino hippuric acid (PAH) clearance technology. This model of CKD is characterized by a reduction in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and effective renal plasma flow (ERPF), hypertension (systolic blood pressure&gt;150 mmHg), proteinuria (&gt; 50 mg/24 hr) and mild uremia (&gt;10 mM). Histological features include tubulo-interstitial damage reflected by inflammation, tubular atrophy and fibrosis and focal glomerulosclerosis leading to massive reduction of healthy glomeruli within the remnant population (&lt;10%). Follow-up until 12 weeks after SNX shows further progression of CKD.

A two-stage method to establish chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the Lewis rat by surgically removing 5/6th of renal mass is described. Combination of the surgical procedure, NOS-inhibition and a high-salt diet leads to a model resembling human CKD, allowing study of causal mechanisms and development of novel therapeutic interventions.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a global problem. Slowing CKD progression is a major health priority. Since CKD is characterized by complex derangements ...

Polyacrylamide Gels for Invadopodia and Traction Force Assays on Cancer Cells

Rigid tumor tissues have been strongly implicated in regulating cancer cell migration and invasion. Invasive migration through cross-linked tissues is facilitated by actin-rich protrusions called invadopodia that proteolytically degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM). Invadopodia activity has been shown to be dependent on ECM rigidity and cancer cell contractile forces suggesting that rigidity signals can regulate these subcellular structures through actomyosin contractility. Invasive and contractile properties of cancer cells can be correlated in vitro using invadopodia and traction force assays based on polyacrylamide gels (PAAs) of different rigidities. Invasive and contractile properties of cancer cells can be correlated in vitro using invadopodia and traction force assays based on polyacrylamide gels (PAAs) of different rigidities. While some variations between the two assays exist, the protocol presented here provides a method for creating PAAs that can be used in both assays and are easily adaptable to the user&#8217;s specific biological and technical needs.

Mechanical rigidity in the tumor microenvironment plays a crucial role in driving malignant behavior by increasing invadopodia activity and actomyosin contractility. Using polyacrylamide gels (PAAs), invadopodia and traction force assays can be utilized to study the invasive and contractile properties of cancer cells in response to matrix rigidity.

Rigid tumor tissues have been strongly implicated in regulating cancer cell migration and invasion. Invasive migration through cross-linked tissues is ...

Boldness, Aggression, and Shoaling Assays for Zebrafish Behavioral Syndromes

A behavioral syndrome exists when specific behaviors interact under different contexts. Zebrafish have been test subjects in recent studies and it is important to standardize protocols to ensure proper analyses and interpretations. In our previous studies, we have measured boldness by monitoring a series of behaviors (time near surface, latency in transitions, number of transitions, and darts) in a 1.5 L trapezoidal tank. Likewise, we quantified aggression by observing bites, lateral displays, darts, and time near an inclined mirror in a rectangular 19 L tank. By dividing a 76 L tank into thirds, we also examined shoaling preferences. The shoaling assay is a highly customizable assay and can be tailored for specific hypotheses. However, protocols for this assay also must be standardized, yet flexible enough for customization. In previous studies, end chambers were either empty, contained 5 or 10 zebrafish, or 5 pearl danios (D. albolineatus). In the following manuscript, we present a detailed protocol and representative data that accompany successful applications of the protocol, which will allow for replication of behavioral syndrome experiments.

This manuscript describes the setup, implementation, and analysis of boldness, aggression, and shoaling in zebrafish and testing for the presence of a behavioral syndrome. A standardized approach for behavioral quantification will allow for easier comparison across studies. Modifications to this protocol are possible as each assay can be run individually.

A behavioral syndrome exists when specific behaviors interact under different contexts. Zebrafish have been test subjects in recent studies and it is ...

Synthesis, Characterization, and Application of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoprobes for Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis Detection

A molecular imaging probe comprising superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles and Mycobacterium tuberculosis surface antibody (MtbsAb) was synthesized to enhance imaging sensitivity for extrapulmonary tuberculosis (ETB). An SPIO nanoprobe was synthesized and conjugated with MtbsAb. The purified SPIO-MtbsAb nanoprobe was characterized using TEM and NMR. To determine the targeting ability of the probe, SPIO-MtbsAb nanoprobes were incubated with Mtb for in vitro imaging assays and injected into Mtb-inoculated mice for in vivo investigation with magnetic resonance (MR). The contrast enhancement reduction on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of Mtb and THP1 cells showed proportional to the SPIO-MtbsAb nanoprobe concentration. After 30 min of intravenous SPIO-MtbsAb nanoprobe injection into Mtb-infected mice, the signal intensity of the granulomatous site was enhanced by 14-fold in the T2-weighted MR images compared with that in mice receiving PBS injection. The MtbsAb nanoprobes can be used as a novel modality for ETB detection.

To improve serological diagnostic tests for Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens, we developed superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoprobes to detect extrapulmonary tuberculosis.

A molecular imaging probe comprising superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles and Mycobacterium tuberculosis surface antibody (MtbsAb) was ...

Platelet-based Detection of Nitric Oxide in Blood by Measuring VASP Phosphorylation

Platelets are the blood components responsible for proper blood clotting. Their function is highly regulated by various pathways. One of the most potent vasoactive agents, nitric oxide (NO), can also act as a powerful inhibitor of platelet aggregation. Direct NO detection in blood is very challenging due to its high reactivity with cell-free hemoglobin that limits NO half-life to the millisecond range. Currently, NO changes after interventions are only estimated based on measured changes of nitrite and nitrate (members of the nitrate-nitrite-NO metabolic pathway). However precise, these measurements are rather difficult to interpret vis a vis actual NO changes, due to the naturally high baseline nitrite and nitrate levels that are several orders of magnitude higher than expected changes of NO itself. Therefore, the development of direct and simple methods that would allow one to detect NO directly is long overdue. This protocol addresses a potential use of platelets as a highly sensitive NO sensor in blood. It describes initial platelet rich plasma (PRP) and washed platelet preparations and the use of nitrite and deoxygenated red blood cells as NO generators. Phosphorylation of VASP at serine 239 (P-VASPSer239) is used to detect the presence of NO. The fact that VASP protein is highly expressed in platelets and that it is rapidly phosphorylated when NO is present leads to a unique opportunity to use this pathway to directly detect NO presence in blood.

Here, we present a protocol to address the potential use of platelets as a highly sensitive nitric oxide sensor in blood. It describes initial platelet preparation and the use of nitrite and deoxygenated red blood cells as nitric oxide generators.

Platelets are the blood components responsible for proper blood clotting. Their function is highly regulated by various pathways. One of the most potent ...

Rapid Evaluation of Toxicity of Chemical Compounds Using Zebrafish Embryos

The zebrafish is a widely used vertebrate model organism for the disease and phenotype-based drug discovery. The zebrafish generates many offspring, has transparent embryos and rapid external development. Zebrafish embryos can, therefore, also be used for the rapid evaluation of toxicity of the drugs that are precious and available in small quantities. In the present article, a method for the efficient screening of the toxicity of chemical compounds using 1-5-day post fertilization embryos is described. The embryos are monitored by stereomicroscope to investigate the phenotypic defects caused by the exposure to different concentrations of compounds. Half-maximal lethal concentrations (LC50) of the compounds are also determined. The present study required 3-6 mg of an inhibitor compound, and the whole experiment takes about 8-10 h to be completed by an individual in a laboratory having basic facilities. The current protocol is suitable for testing any compound to identify intolerable toxic or off-target effects of the compound in the early phase of drug discovery and to detect subtle toxic effects that may be missed in the cell culture or other animal models. The method reduces procedural delays and costs of drug development.

Zebrafish embryos are used for evaluating the toxicity of chemical compounds. They develop externally and are sensitive to chemicals, allowing detection of subtle phenotypic changes. The experiment only requires a small amount of compound, which is directly added to the plate containing embryos, making the testing system efficient and cost-effective.

The zebrafish is a widely used vertebrate model organism for the disease and phenotype-based drug discovery. The zebrafish generates many offspring, has ...