We are thankful to the ACS PRF (grant 60302-UR9), Agrobio S.L. (contract #311325), and MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/FEDER, UE (grant No. PID2021-122369NB-I00).

<ol>
	<li>Basaran, O. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Small-scale+free+surface+flows+with+break-up:+drop+formation+and+emerging+applications.">Small-scale free surface flows with break-up: drop formation and emerging applications.</a> American Institute of Chemical Engineers. 48 (9), 1842-1848 (2004).</li><li>Squires, T. M., Quake, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microfluidics:+Fluid+physics+at+the+nanoliter+scale.">Microfluidics: Fluid physics at the nanoliter scale.</a> Reviews of Modern Physics. 77 (3), 977-1026 (2005).</li><li>Stone, H. A., Stroock, A. 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R., Fernandez-Nieves, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drop+size+control+in+electro-coflow.">Drop size control in electro-coflow.</a> Applied Physics Letters. 99 (2), 021910 (2011).</li><li>Cloupeau, M., Prunet-Foch, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrostatic+spraying+of+liquids:+Main+functioning+modes.">Electrostatic spraying of liquids: Main functioning modes.</a> Journal of Electrostatics. 25 (2), 165-184 (1990).</li><li>Jaworek, A., Krupa, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Main+modes+of+electrohydrodynamic+spraying+of+liquids.">Main modes of electrohydrodynamic spraying of liquids.</a> Third International Conference on Multiphase Flow ICMF. , (1998).</li><li>Juraschek, R., R&#246;llgen, F. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pulsation+phenomena+during+electrospray+ionization.">Pulsation phenomena during electrospray ionization.</a> International Journal of Mass Spectrometry. 177 (1), 1-15 (1998).</li><li>Guerrero, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emission+modes+in+electro+co-flow.">Emission modes in electro co-flow.</a> Physics of Fluids. 31 (8), 082009 (2019).</li><li>Utada, A. S., Fern&#225;ndez-Nieves, A., Stone, H. A., Weitz, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dripping+to+jetting+transitions+in+coflowing+liquid+streams.">Dripping to jetting transitions in coflowing liquid streams.</a> Physical Review Letters. 99 (9), 094502 (2007).</li><li>Castro-Hern&#225;ndez, E., Gundabala, V., Fern&#225;ndez-Nieves, A., Gordillo, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scaling+the+drop+size+in+coflow+experiments.">Scaling the drop size in coflow experiments.</a> New Journal of Physics. 11, 075021 (2009).</li><li>Godfray, H. C. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Food+Security:+the+challenge+of+feeding+9+billion+people.">Food Security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people.</a> Science. 327 (5967), 812-818 (2010).</li><li>Labb&#233;, R., Gagnier, D., Kostic, A., Shipp, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+function+of+supplemental+foods+for+improved+crop+establishment+of+generalist+predators+Orius+insidiosus+and+Dicyphus+hesperus.">The function of supplemental foods for improved crop establishment of generalist predators Orius insidiosus and Dicyphus hesperus.</a> Scientific Reports. 8 (1), 17790 (2018).</li><li>Pilkington, L. J., Messelink, G., van Lenteren, J. C., Le Mottee, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=34;Protected+Biological+Control&amp;#34;+-+Biological+pest+management+in+the+greenhouse+industry.">34;Protected Biological Control&amp;#34; - Biological pest management in the greenhouse industry.</a> Biological Control. 52 (3), 216-220 (2010).</li><li>Benson, C. M., Labbe, R. 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J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Approaches+to+conserving+natural+enemy+populations+in+greenhouse+crops:+current+methods+and+future+prospects.">Approaches to conserving natural enemy populations in greenhouse crops: current methods and future prospects.</a> BioControl. 59, 377-393 (2014).</li><li>Mu&#241;oz-C&#225;rdenas, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generalist+red+velvet+mite+predator+(Balaustium+sp.)+performs+better+on+a+mixed+diet.">Generalist red velvet mite predator (Balaustium sp.) performs better on a mixed diet.</a> Experimental &amp; Applied Acarology. 62 (1), 19-32 (2014).</li><li>van Lenteren, J. C., Bolckmans, K., K&#246;hl, J., Ravensberg, W. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The protocol to fabricate three different glass-based devices has been described above. In the case of the device to generate simple drops, the flow rate and liquid properties are crucial to generate drops in a controlled manner. Drops will form at the tip in the dripping regime, or at the end of the jet in the jetting regime. The transition from dripping to jetting is parametrized by the dimensionless Weber number, We23. This number represents the ratio between inertial and surface tension forces...

Controlled generation of drops in the micron and nanoscale with a narrow size distribution is a challenging task. These drops are of interest for the engineering of soft materials with many applications in science and technology1,2,3,4,5,6.
The most common devices for the high production rate&#160;of drops are mixers7 and ultrasound emulsificators8. These methods are simple and low cost, but they typically result in polydisperse drops with a wide range of sizes. Hence, additional steps are required to produce monodisperse samples. Microfluidic devices can be designed differently to provide an efficient way to drop formation. Additionally, the usually low flow rates involved (i.e., low Reynolds number) allow for great&#160;control over the fluid flow.
While microfluidic devices are commonly made using lithographic techniques with poly(dimethyl) siloxane (PDMS), this manuscript focuses on glass-based capillary devices. PDMS devices are usually chosen for their ability to design complex channel patterns and because of their scalability. Glass devices, on the contrary, are rigid and have greater solvent resistance than their PDMS counterparts. Additionally, glass can be modified to change its wettability, which allows controlling the generation of complex emulsions. Being able to independently treat the nozzle and channel walls enables the formation of drops in a controlled and reproducible manner, while assuring&#160;the stability of the resultant emulsions if the drops were to touch the walls9; otherwise the drops may coalesce and accumulate at the wall. Another difference between these two types of devices is that in glass-based devices, the flow is three-dimensional, while it is planar in conventional PDMS devices. This fact minimizes the drop contact with the channel walls so that the influence of contact lines can be neglected10, thereby protecting the stability of multiple emulsion drops.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63376/63376fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Different microfluidic device configurations. Sketches of (A) a T-junction, (B) a coflowing device, and (C) a flow-focusing device. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63376/63376fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
There are three main geometries used, namely T-junction11, flow focusing12,13, and coflow14. In the T-junction geometry, the dispersed phase contained in the channel perpendicularly intersects the main channel which houses the continuous phase. The shear stress exerted by the continuous phase breaks the incoming dispersed liquid resulting in drops. The generated drops are limited in lower size by the dimensions of the main channel11. In the flow-focusing geometry, the two fluids are forced through a small orifice that is located in front of the injection tube. The result is&#160;the formation of a jet, which is much smaller than the injection tube12,13. Finally, the coflow geometry has a configuration characterized by the coaxial flow of two immiscible fluids14. In general, dripping and jetting can be observed depending on the operating conditions. The dripping regime occurs at low flow rates and the resulting droplets are very monodisperse and have a diameter proportional to the tip size. The drawback is its low production frequency. The jetting regime occurs at higher flow rates as compared to the dripping regime. In this case, the drop diameter is directly proportional to the diameter of the jet which can be much smaller than the diameter of the tip under the right conditions.
An alternative to these hydrodynamic approaches relies on the additional use of electric forces. Electrospray is a well-known and widely used technique for generating droplets. It is based on the principle that a liquid with a finite electrical conductivity will deform in the presence of a strong electric field. The liquid will eventually adopt a conical shape resulting from&#160;the balance between electric and surface tension stresses15. The process starts with the electric field inducing an electric current in the liquid that causes charges to accumulate at the surface. The presence of the electric field results in an electric force on these charges, which drags the liquid along, elongating the meniscus in the direction of the field. Under different conditions, the meniscus can either shed the charged drops or may emit one or several jets which then break into drops15. Although these electrically assisted microfluidic methods naturally allow the generation of small drops, they suffer from a lack of a steady-state operation that compromises the emulsion monodispersity. The resultant charged drops tend to discharge on the confining walls and/or anywhere in the device where the electric potential is lower than the imposed external voltage. Thus, the electrified meniscus becomes unstable, ultimately emitting drops in a chaotic way and causing their uncontrolled production and loss of monodispersity.
In electro-coflow, the electrical and hydrodynamic stresses are coupled in a coflow microfluidic device16 similar to the one used for generating double emulsions12. Two main features allow electro-coflow to be successful in reaching a steady-state emission regime: (i) the dispersed phase is ejected into another coflowing viscous liquid, and (ii) the use of a liquid counter-electrode or ground. Having a flowing outer liquid has proven to change the geometric properties of the drop emission process17. The liquid counter-electrode allows the discharge and extraction of the resultant drops, assuring the steady-state generation of drops. In addition, by exploiting the balance of electrical and hydrodynamic forces, the resultant drop sizes can potentially vary within a&#160;wider range than the sizes that can be covered by any of the previously mentioned techniques.
This detailed video protocol is intended to help new practitioners in the&#160;use and fabrication of glass-based microfluidics.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2-[methoxy(polyethyleneoxy)6-9propyl] trimethoxysilane.</td>
			<td>Gelest</td>
			<td>SIM6492.7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ceramic tile</td>
			<td>Sutter</td>
			<td>CTS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylene glycol</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP230</td>
			<td>These can be found at other companies like Sigma-Aldrich</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hexane</td>
			<td>Sigma- Aldrich</td>
			<td>34859</td>
			<td>Available in other vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ITW Polymers Adhesives Devcon 5 Minute Epoxy Adhesive 25 mL Dev-Tube</td>
			<td>Ellsworth adhesives</td>
			<td>470740</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microforge</td>
			<td>Narishige</td>
			<td>MF 830</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter</td>
			<td>P97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope slides</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>12-544-1</td>
			<td>Available in other vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle 20 Gauge, .0255&#34; ID, .0355&#34; OD, 1/2&#34; Long</td>
			<td>McMaster</td>
			<td>75165A677</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SDS</td>
			<td>Sigma-aldrich</td>
			<td>428015</td>
			<td>Surfactant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicone oil</td>
			<td>Clearco</td>
			<td>PSF-10cSt</td>
			<td>The catalog number correspond to the 10cSt viscosity oil. Different viscosity oils can be found at this company</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Span 80</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S0060500G</td>
			<td>non-ionic surfactant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Square glass capillary 2mm ID (borosillicate 300 or 600 mm long)</td>
			<td>VitroCom</td>
			<td>S 102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Standard Glass Capillaries, 6 in., 2 / 1.12 OD/ID</td>
			<td>World Precision instruments</td>
			<td>1B200-6</td>
			<td>These can be found at other companies like Sutter or Vitrocom</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe pump</td>
			<td>Chemyx</td>
			<td>FUSION 100-X</td>
			<td>This model has a good quality/price ratio</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringes (it will depend on the compatibility with the liquids)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Catalog number will depend on the size</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trimethoxy(octyl)silane</td>
			<td>Sigma- Aldrich</td>
			<td>376221</td>
			<td>Available in other vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tubing ( it will depend on the compatibility with the liquids)</td>
			<td>Scientific commodities</td>
			<td>BB3165-PE/5</td>
			<td>This reference is for polyethylene micro tubing. The size fits the needle size listed here</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

glass-based devices to generate drops and emulsions

In this manuscript, three different step-by-step protocols to generate highly monodisperse emulsion drops using glass-based microfluidics are described. The first device is built for the generation of simple drops driven by gravity. The second device is designed to generate emulsion drops in a coflowing scheme. The third device is an extension of the coflowing device with the addition of a third liquid that acts as an electric ground, allowing the formation of electrified drops that subsequently discharge. In this setup, two of the three liquids have an appreciable electrical conductivity. The third liquid mediates between these two and is a dielectric. A&#160;voltage difference applied between the two conducting liquids creates an electric field that couples with hydrodynamic stresses of the coflowing liquids, affecting the jet and drop formation process. The addition of the electric field provides a path to generate smaller drops than in simple coflow devices and for generating particles and fibers with a wide range of sizes.

In this manuscript, three different devices have been designed to generate drops. We have generated drops with a size of (3.29 &#177; 0.08) mm&#160;(Figure 4B) and (1.75 &#177; 0.04) mm&#160;(Figure 4C) using the device described in step 1. The emulsion drops can be generated using the coflow and the electro-coflow devices. For the latter, we show dripping in Figure 9, while cone-jet and whipping modes are shown in <strong class="xf...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Glass-Based Devices to Generate Drops and Emulsions at JoVE.com

Glass-Based Devices to Generate Drops and Emulsions

Here, a protocol to manufacture glass-based microfluidic devices used for generating highly monodisperse emulsions with controlled drop size is presented.

In this manuscript, three different step-by-step protocols to generate highly monodisperse emulsion drops using glass-based microfluidics are described. ...

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2.6K Views.  Augusta University. Here, a protocol to manufacture glass-based microfluidic devices used for generating highly monodisperse emulsions with controlled drop size is presented. 

Video: Glass-Based Devices to Generate Drops and Emulsions

Analysis of Contact Interfaces for Single GaN Nanowire Devices

Single GaN nanowire (NW) devices fabricated on SiO2 can exhibit a strong degradation after annealing due to the occurrence of void formation at the contact/SiO2 interface. This void formation can cause cracking and delamination of the metal film, which can increase the resistance or lead to a complete failure of the NW device. In order to address issues associated with void formation, a technique was developed that removes Ni/Au contact metal films from the substrates to allow for the examination and characterization of the contact/substrate and contact/NW interfaces of single GaN NW devices. This procedure determines the degree of adhesion of the contact films to the substrate and NWs and allows for the characterization of the morphology and composition of the contact interface with the substrate and nanowires. This technique is also useful for assessing the amount of residual contamination that remains from the NW suspension and from photolithographic processes on the NW-SiO2 surface prior to metal deposition. The detailed steps of this procedure are presented for the removal of annealed Ni/Au contacts to Mg-doped GaN NWs on a SiO2 substrate.

A technique was developed that removes Ni/Au contact metal films from their substrate to allow for the examination and characterization of the contact/substrate and contact/NW interfaces of single GaN nanowire devices.

Single GaN nanowire (NW) devices fabricated on SiO2 can exhibit  a strong degradation after annealing due to the  occurrence of void formation at the ...

Picoinjection of Microfluidic Drops Without Metal Electrodes

Existing methods for picoinjecting reagents into microfluidic drops require metal electrodes integrated into the microfluidic chip. The integration of these electrodes adds cumbersome and error-prone steps to the device fabrication process. We have developed a technique that obviates the needs for metal electrodes during picoinjection. Instead, it uses the injection fluid itself as an electrode, since most biological reagents contain dissolved electrolytes and are conductive. By eliminating the electrodes, we reduce device fabrication time and complexity, and make the devices more robust. In addition, with our approach, the injection volume depends on the voltage applied to the picoinjection solution; this allows us to rapidly adjust the volume injected by modulating the applied voltage. We demonstrate that our technique is compatible with reagents incorporating common biological compounds, including buffers, enzymes, and nucleic acids.

We have developed a technique for picoinjecting microfluidic drops that does not require metal electrodes. As such, devices incorporating our technique are simpler to fabricate and to use.

Existing methods for picoinjecting reagents into microfluidic drops require metal electrodes integrated into the microfluidic chip. The integration of ...

In Situ Time-dependent Dielectric Breakdown in the Transmission Electron Microscope: A Possibility to Understand the Failure Mechanism in Microelectronic Devices

The time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) in on-chip interconnect stacks is one of the most critical failure mechanisms for microelectronic devices. The aggressive scaling of feature sizes, both on devices and interconnects, leads to serious challenges to ensure the required product reliability. Standard reliability tests and post-mortem failure analysis provide only limited information about the physics of failure mechanisms and degradation kinetics. Therefore it is necessary to develop new experimental approaches and procedures to study the TDDB failure mechanisms and degradation kinetics in particular. In this paper, an in situ experimental methodology in the transmission electron microscope (TEM) is demonstrated to investigate the TDDB degradation and failure mechanisms in Cu/ULK interconnect stacks. High quality imaging and chemical analysis are used to study the kinetic process. The in situ electrical test is integrated into the TEM to provide an elevated electrical field to the dielectrics. Electron tomography is utilized to characterize the directed Cu diffusion in the insulating dielectrics. This experimental procedure opens a possibility to study the failure mechanism in interconnect stacks of microelectronic products, and it could also be extended to other structures in active devices.

In Situ Time-dependent Dielectric Breakdown in the Transmission Electron Microscope: A Possibility to Understand the Failure Mechanism in Microelectronic Devices

The time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) in on-chip interconnect stacks is one of the most critical failure mechanisms for microelectronic devices. This paper demonstrates the procedure of an in situ TDDB experiment in the transmission electron microscope, which opens a possibility to study the failure mechanism in microelectronic products.

The time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) in on-chip interconnect stacks is one of the most critical failure mechanisms for microelectronic devices. ...

Thermal Measurement Techniques in Analytical Microfluidic Devices

Thermal measurement techniques have been used for many applications such as thermal characterization of materials and chemical reaction detection. Micromachining techniques allow reduction of the thermal mass of fabricated structures and introduce the possibility to perform high sensitivity thermal measurements in the micro-scale and nano-scale devices. Combining thermal measurement techniques with microfluidic devices allows performing different analytical measurements with low sample consumption and reduced measurement time by integrating the miniaturized system on a single chip. The procedures of thermal measurement techniques for particle detection, material characterization, and chemical detection are introduced in this paper.

Here, we present three protocols for thermal measurements in microfluidic devices.

Thermal measurement techniques have been used for many applications such as thermal characterization of materials and chemical reaction detection. ...

Fabrication and Operation of Acoustofluidic Devices Supporting Bulk Acoustic Standing Waves for Sheathless Focusing of Particles

Acoustophoresis refers to the displacement of suspended objects in response to directional forces from sound energy. Given that the suspended objects must be smaller than the incident wavelength of sound and the width of the fluidic channels are typically tens to hundreds of micrometers across, acoustofluidic devices typically use ultrasonic waves generated from a piezoelectric transducer pulsating at high frequencies (in the megahertz range). At characteristic frequencies that depend on the geometry of the device, it is possible to induce the formation of standing waves that can focus particles along desired fluidic streamlines within a bulk flow. Here, we describe a method for the fabrication of acoustophoretic devices from common materials and clean room equipment. We show representative results for the focusing of particles with positive or negative acoustic contrast factors, which move towards the pressure nodes or antinodes of the standing waves, respectively. These devices offer enormous practical utility for precisely positioning large numbers of microscopic entities (e.g., cells) in stationary or flowing fluids for applications ranging from cytometry to assembly.

Acoustofluidic devices use ultrasonic waves within microfluidic channels to manipulate, concentrate and isolate suspended micro and nanoscopic entities. This protocol describes the fabrication and operation of such a device supporting bulk acoustic standing waves to focus particles in a central streamline without the aid of sheath fluids.

Acoustophoresis refers to the displacement of suspended objects in response to directional forces from sound energy. Given that the suspended objects must ...

Fabrication of Fully Solution Processed Inorganic Nanocrystal Photovoltaic Devices

We demonstrate a method for the preparation of fully solution processed inorganic solar cells from a spin and spray coating deposition of nanocrystal inks. For the photoactive absorber layer, colloidal CdTe and CdSe nanocrystals (3-5 nm) are synthesized using an inert hot injection technique and cleaned with precipitations to remove excess starting reagents. Similarly, gold nanocrystals (3-5 nm) are synthesized under ambient conditions and dissolved in organic solvents. In addition, precursor solutions for transparent conductive indium tin oxide (ITO) films are prepared from solutions of indium and tin salts paired with a reactive oxidizer. Layer-by-layer, these solutions are deposited onto a glass substrate following annealing (200-400 &#176;C) to build the nanocrystal solar cell (glass/ITO/CdSe/CdTe/Au). Pre-annealing ligand exchange is required for CdSe and CdTe nanocrystals where films are dipped in NH4Cl:methanol to replace long-chain native ligands with small inorganic Cl- anions. NH4Cl(s) was found to act as a catalyst for the sintering reaction (as a non-toxic alternative to the conventional CdCl2(s) treatment) leading to grain growth (136&#177;39 nm) during heating. The thickness and roughness of the prepared films are characterized with SEM and optical profilometry. FTIR is used to determine the degree of ligand exchange prior to sintering, and XRD is used to verify the crystallinity and phase of each material. UV/Vis spectra show high visible light transmission through the ITO layer and a red shift in the absorbance of the cadmium chalcogenide nanocrystals after thermal annealing. Current-voltage curves of completed devices are measured under simulated one sun illumination. Small differences in deposition techniques and reagents employed during ligand exchange have been shown to have a profound influence on the device properties. Here, we examine the effects of chemical (sintering and ligand exchange agents) and physical treatments (solution concentration, spray-pressure, annealing time and annealing temperature) on photovoltaic device performance.

This protocol describes the synthesis and solution deposition of inorganic nanocrystals layer by layer to produce thin film electronics on non-conductive surfaces. Solvent-stabilized inks can produce complete photovoltaic devices on glass substrates via spin and spray coating following post-deposition ligand exchange and sintering.

We demonstrate a method for the preparation of fully solution processed inorganic solar cells from a spin and spray coating deposition of nanocrystal ...

Preparation and 3D Tracking of Catalytic Swimming Devices

We report a method to prepare catalytically active Janus colloids that "swim" in fluids and describe how to determine their 3D motion using fluorescence microscopy. One commonly deployed method for catalytically active colloids to produce enhanced motion is via an asymmetrical distribution of catalyst. Here this is achieved by spin coating a dispersed layer of fluorescent polymeric colloids onto a flat planar substrate, and then using directional platinum vapor deposition to half coat the exposed colloid surface, making a two faced "Janus" structure. The Janus colloids are then re-suspended from the planar substrate into an aqueous solution containing hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide serves as a fuel for the platinum catalyst, which is decomposed into water and oxygen, but only on one side of the colloid. The asymmetry results in gradients that produce enhanced motion, or "swimming". A fluorescence microscope, together with a video camera is used to record the motion of individual colloids. The center of the fluorescent emission is found using image analysis to provide an x and y coordinate for each frame of the video. While keeping the microscope focal position fixed, the fluorescence emission from the colloid produces a characteristic concentric ring pattern which is subject to image analysis to determine the particles relative z position. In this way 3D trajectories for the swimming colloid are obtained, allowing swimming velocity to be accurately measured, and physical phenomena such as gravitaxis, which may bias the colloids motion to be detected.

A method to prepare catalytically active Janus colloids that can "swim" in fluids and determine their 3D trajectories is presented.

We report a method to prepare catalytically active Janus colloids that "swim" in fluids and describe how to determine their 3D motion using fluorescence ...

Solvent Bonding for Fabrication of PMMA and COP Microfluidic Devices

Thermoplastic microfluidic devices offer many advantages over those made from silicone elastomers, but bonding procedures must be developed for each thermoplastic of interest. Solvent bonding is a simple and versatile method that can be used to fabricate devices from a variety of plastics. An appropriate solvent is added between two device layers to be bonded, and heat and pressure are applied to the device to facilitate the bonding. By using an appropriate combination of solvent, plastic, heat, and pressure, the device can be sealed with a high quality bond, characterized as having high bond coverage, bond strength, optical clarity, durability over time, and low deformation or damage to microfeature geometry. We describe the procedure for bonding devices made from two popular thermoplastics, poly(methyl-methacrylate) (PMMA), and cyclo-olefin polymer (COP), as well as a variety of methods to characterize the quality of the resulting bonds, and strategies to troubleshoot low quality bonds. These methods can be used to develop new solvent bonding protocols for other plastic-solvent systems.

Solvent bonding is a simple and versatile method for fabricating thermoplastic microfluidic devices with high quality bonds. We describe a protocol to achieve strong, optically clear bonds in PMMA and COP microfluidic devices that preserve microfeature details, by a judicious combination of pressure, temperature, an appropriate solvent, and device geometry.

Thermoplastic microfluidic devices offer many advantages over those made from silicone elastomers, but bonding procedures must be developed for each ...

Scanning Light Scattering Profiler (SLPS) Based Methodology to Quantitatively Evaluate Forward and Backward Light Scattering from Intraocular Lenses

The scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) methodology has been developed for the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward light scattering from intraocular lenses (IOLs) using goniophotometer principles. This protocol describes the SLSP platform and how it employs a 360&#176; rotational photodetector sensor that is scanned around an IOL sample while recording the intensity and location of scattered light as it passes through the IOL medium. The SLSP platform can be used to predict, non-clinically, the propensity for current and novel IOL designs and materials to induce light scatter. Non-clinical evaluation of light scattering properties of IOLs can significantly reduce the number of patient complaints related to unwanted glare, glistening, optical defects, poor image quality, and other phenomena associated with the unintended light scattering. Future studies should be conducted to correlate SLSP data with clinical results to help identify which measured light scatter is most problematic for patients that have undergone cataract surgery subsequent to IOL implantation.

Scanning Light Scattering Profiler SLPS Based Methodology to Quantitatively Evaluate Forward and Backward Light Scattering from Intraocular Lenses

This protocol describes the scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) that enables the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward scattering of light from intraocular lenses (IOLs) using goniophotometer principles.

The scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) methodology has been developed for the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward light ...

Preparation of Liquid Crystal Networks for Macroscopic Oscillatory Motion Induced by Light

A strategy based on doped liquid crystalline networks is described to create mechanical self-sustained oscillations of plastic films under continuous light irradiation. The photo-excitation of dopants that can quickly dissipate light into heat, coupled with anisotropic thermal expansion and self-shadowing of the film, gives rise to the self-sustained deformation. The oscillations observed are influenced by the dimensions and the modulus of the film, and by the directionality and intensity of the light. The system developed offers applications in energy conversion and harvesting for soft-robotics and automated systems.
The general method described here consists of creating free-standing liquid crystalline films and characterizing the mechanical and thermal effects observed. The molecular alignment is achieved using alignment layers (rubbed polyimide), commonly used in the display manufacturing industry. To obtain actuators with large deformation, the mesogens are aligned and polymerized in a splay/bend configuration, i.e., with the director of the liquid crystals (LCs) going gradually from planar to homeotropic through the film thickness. Upon irradiation, the mechanical and thermal oscillations obtained are monitored with a high-speed camera. The results are further quantified by image analysis using an image processing program.

The goal of the protocol is to create liquid crystalline polymer films that can mechanically oscillate under continuous light irradiation. We describe in great detail the conception of free-standing films, from the liquid crystal alignment method to the photo-actuation. The experimental protocol applied to prepare this material is broadly applicable.

A strategy based on doped liquid crystalline networks is described to create mechanical self-sustained oscillations of plastic films under continuous ...

Methods Article

Glass-Based Devices to Generate Drops and Emulsions