Agradecemos a membros do laboratório de Evans pela sua ajuda na preparação desta apresentação. O morpholinos usados ​​aqui foram originalmente validados pelo Dr. Audrey Holtzinger. TE é suportado por concessões do National Institutes of Health (HL064282 e HL056182). Experimentos em animais foram realizados de acordo com as diretrizes e regulamentos estabelecidos pelo Instituto de Animal Care e do Comitê de Uso, do Weill Cornell Medical College.

<ol>
	<li>Heicklen-Klein, A., McReynolds, L. J., Evans, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+the+zebrafish+model+to+study+GATA+transcription+factors.">Using the zebrafish model to study GATA transcription factors.</a> Semin Cell Dev Biol. 16, 95-106 (2005).</li><li>Bill, B. R., Petzold, A. M., Clark, K. J., Schimmenti, L. A., Ekker, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+primer+for+morpholino+use+in+zebrafish.">A primer for morpholino use in zebrafish.</a> Zebrafish. 6, 69-77 (2009).</li><li>Holtzinger, A., Evans, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gata5+and+Gata6+are+functionally+redundant+in+zebrafish+for+specification+of+cardiomyocytes.">Gata5 and Gata6 are functionally redundant in zebrafish for specification of cardiomyocytes.</a> Dev Biol. 312, 613-622 (2007).</li><li>Peterkin, T., Gibson, A., Patient, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Redundancy+and+evolution+of+GATA+factor+requirements+in+development+of+the+myocardium.">Redundancy and evolution of GATA factor requirements in development of the myocardium.</a> Dev Biol. 311, 623-635 (2007).</li><li>Holtzinger, A., Evans, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gata4+regulates+the+formation+of+multiple+organs.">Gata4 regulates the formation of multiple organs.</a> Development. 132, 4005-4014 (2005).</li><li>Sorrentino, R. P., Gajewski, K. M., Schulz, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GATA+factors+in+Drosophila+heart+and+blood+cell+development.">GATA factors in Drosophila heart and blood cell development.</a> Semin Cell Dev Biol. 16, 107-116 (2005).</li></ol>

Não há conflitos de interesse declarados.

No experimento descrito aqui, combinamos duas morpholinos, cada qual por si só gerar uma gama de fenótipos distintos, e encontrou um fenótipo totalmente diferente quando foram co-injetados juntos. É claro, precisávamos de uma justificação para fazer esta experiência, em primeiro lugar. Nós suspeitamos que os dois genes pode compensar o outro para uma função mais cedo, nesta especificação caso cardíaca. Isso ocorre porque os genes são altamente relacionados (e capazes de se ligar às seqüências de DNA me...

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<td>Fish breeder tanks and dividers</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Aquatic Habitats</td>
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<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Fish nets</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Aquatic Habitats</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>60mg &#x201C;Instant Ocean&#x201D; per liter dH2O</td>
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<td>100mm Petri dishes</td>
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<td>BD Falcon</td>
<td>351029</td>
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<td>Micropipette needle puller</td>
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<td>Sutter instruments, Co.</td>
<td>P-97 Flaming/Brown</td>
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<td>3.5" glass capillaries</td>
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<td>Drummond</td>
<td>3-000-203-G/X</td>
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<td>Razor blade</td>
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<td>Personna</td>
<td>94-120-71</td>
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<td>Narishige, Japan</td>
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<td>Ward&#x2019;s Natural Science</td>
<td>94 W 9910</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>Ultrapure agarose</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>15510-027</td>
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<td>Spatula</td>
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<td>Fisher</td>
<td>14-357Q</td>
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<td>Mettler Toledo</td>
<td>AB54-S/FACT</td>
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<td>2-202-B</td>
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<td>4980</td>
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<td>Fisher</td>
<td>12-552</td>
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<td>Graduated cylinder</td>
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<td>08-572-6D</td>
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<td>Automatic pipette man</td>
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<td>BrandTech</td>
<td>2026333</td>
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<td>70% ethanol wash solution</td>
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<td>Tarr</td>
<td>801VWR</td>
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<td>N2 tank</td>
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<td>Tech Air</td>
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<td>Microinjector</td>
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<td>Harvard apparatus</td>
<td>PLI-100</td>
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<td>Micromanipulator</td>
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<td> LTD</td>
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<td>Dissecting microscope</td>
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<td>Nikon</td>
<td>SMZ1500</td>
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<td>Parafilm</td>
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<td>American National Can</td>
<td>PM-992</td>
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<tr>
<td>Mineral oil</td>
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<td>Sigma</td>
<td>M5904</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Kimwipes</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Kimberly-Clark</td>
<td>34155</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>gata5 splice site morpholino</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Genetools, LLC</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>5'-TCTTAAGATTTTTACCTATACTGGA-3'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>gata5 ATG Blocker</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Genetools, LLC</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>5'-AAGATAAAGCCAGGCTCGAATACAT-3'</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>gata6 Long Isoform ATG Blocker</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Genetools, LLC</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>5'-AGCTGTTATCACCCAGGTCCATCCA-3'</td>
</tr>
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<td>Disposable Pasteur Pipette</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
<td>13-678-20B</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Tricaine Methanesulfonate</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Argent Chemical Laboratories</td>
<td>MS-222</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Methycellulose</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>ICN Biomedicals</td>
<td>155495</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Heat Block</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher</td>
<td>11-718-4</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Sharp forceps</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Dumont</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Size 55</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Depression Microslides</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>VWR</td>
<td>48339-009</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
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a reverse genetic approach to test functional redundancy during embryogenesis

A função do gene durante a embriogênese é normalmente definida por perda de função experimentos, por exemplo, mutagênese alvo (knockout) no mouse. No modelo peixe-zebra, eficazes técnicas de genética reversa têm sido desenvolvidos usando microinjeção de morpholinos gene antisense específicos. Morpholinos alvo um mRNA através da base de emparelhamento específica e função do gene bloco transitoriamente pela tradução inibir ou splicing por vários dias durante a embriogênese (knockdown). No entanto, em vertebrados, como mouse ou peixe-zebra, algumas funções do gene pode ser obscurecida por estas abordagens, devido à presença de outro gene que compensa a perda. Isto é especialmente verdade para as famílias de genes que contém genes irmã que são co-expressos nos mesmos tecidos em desenvolvimento. Em peixes-zebra, a remuneração funcional pode ser testada de uma forma relativamente alto rendimento, por co-injeção de morpholinos que knockdown alvo de ambos os genes simultaneamente. Da mesma forma, usando morpholinos, uma interação genética entre dois genes pode ser demonstrado pelo knockdown de ambos os genes juntos no sub-threshold níveis. Por exemplo, morpholinos pode ser ajustada de tal forma que nem knockdown indivíduo gera um fenótipo. Se, nessas condições, co-injeção de ambos morpholinos causa um fenótipo, uma interação genético é mostrada. Aqui demonstramos como mostrar redundância funcional no contexto de dois fatores de transcrição GATA relacionados. Fatores GATA são essenciais para a especificação de células progenitoras cardíacas, mas isso só é revelada pela perda de ambos os Gata5 e Gata6. Mostramos como a realização de experimentos microinjeção, validar o morpholinos, e avaliar o fenótipo compensado do coração.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Reverse Genetic Approach to Test Functional Redundancy During Embryogenesis at JoVE.com

A Reverse Genetic Approach to Test Functional Redundancy During Embryogenesis

A função do gene pode ser obscurecida na perda de função experimentos se houver compensação por outro gene. O modelo de zebrafish fornece um relativamente alto rendimento significa revelar redundância funcional como em embriões vivos.

A abordagem inversa Genética para Teste de Redundância funcional durante a embriogênese

Gene function during embryogenesis is typically defined by loss-of-function experiments, for example by targeted mutagenesis (knockout) in the mouse. In ...

a-reverse-genetic-approach-to-test-functional-redundancy-during

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

11.9K visualizações.  Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University. A função do gene pode ser obscurecida na perda de função experimentos se houver compensação por outro gene. O modelo de zebrafish fornece um relativamente alto rendimento significa revelar redundância funcional como em embriões vivos.

Vídeo: A Reverse Genetic Approach to Test Functional Redundancy During Embryogenesis

Light/dark Transition Test for Mice

Although all of the mouse genome sequences have been determined, we do not yet know the functions of most of these genes. Gene-targeting techniques, however, can be used to delete or manipulate a specific gene in mice. The influence of a given gene on a specific behavior can then be determined by conducting behavioral analyses of the mutant mice. As a test for behavioral phenotyping of mutant mice, the light/dark transition test is one of the most widely used tests to measure anxiety-like behavior in mice. The test is based on the natural aversion of mice to brightly illuminated areas and on their spontaneous exploratory behavior in novel environments. The test is sensitive to anxiolytic drug treatment. The apparatus consists of a dark chamber and a brightly illuminated chamber. Mice are allowed to move freely between the two chambers. The number of entries into the bright chamber and the duration of time spent there are indices of bright-space anxiety in mice. To obtain phenotyping results of a strain of mutant mice that can be readily reproduced and compared with those of other mutants, the behavioral test methods should be as identical as possible between laboratories. The procedural differences that exist between laboratories, however, make it difficult to replicate or compare the results among laboratories. Here, we present our protocol for the light/dark transition test as a movie so that the details of the protocol can be demonstrated. In our laboratory, we have assessed more than 60 strains of mutant mice using the protocol shown in the movie. Those data will be disclosed as a part of a public database that we are now constructing.

Visualization of the protocol will facilitate understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used across laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test.

The light/dark transition test is one of the most widely used tests to measure anxiety-like behavior in mice. Here, we present a movie that shows detailed procedures on how we conduct the test.

Claro / escuro Teste de transição para Ratos

Although all of the mouse genome sequences have been determined, we do not yet know the functions of most of these genes. Gene-targeting techniques, ...

Biologia

Method for Culture of Early Chick Embryos ex vivo (New Culture)

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying  the formation and patterning of brain, neural tube, somite and heart primordia. Applications of chick embryo culture include electroporation of DNA or RNA constructs in order to analyze gene function, grafts of growth factor coated beads such as FGFs and BMPs , as well as whole mount in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. This video demonstrates the different steps in chick embryo culture; First, the embryo is explanted in saline. Then, the embryo is centered on a glass ring. The membranes surrounding the embryo are lifted along the walls of the ring. The ring is then placed in a culture dish containing a pool of albumine. The culture dish is sealed and placed in a humid chamber, where the embryo is cultured for up to 24 hrs. Finally, the embryo is removed from the ring, fixed and processed for further applications. A troubleshooting guide is also presented.

Method for Culture of Early Chick Embryos ex vivo New Culture

This video demonstrates New culture, a method by which chick embryos are cultured outside the egg for up to 24 hr. This method enables one to study early development (primitive streak to 14 som.), a period corresponding to E7-9 in mouse. Applications of this technique include electroporation, in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry.

Método para a Cultura de Embriões início pintainho ex vivo (Nova Cultura)

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ...

Double Whole Mount in situ Hybridization of Early Chick Embryos

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying  gene expression in brain, neural tube, somite and heart primordia formation. This video demonstrates the different steps in 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization; First, the embryo is dissected from the egg and fixed in paraformaldehyde. Second, the embryo is processed for prehybridization. The embryo is then hybridized with two different probes, one coupled to DIG, and one coupled to FITC.  Following overnight hybridization, the embryo is incubated with DIG coupled antibody. Color reaction for DIG substrate is performed, and the region of interest appears blue. The embryo is then incubated with FITC coupled antibody. The embryo is processed for color reaction with FITC, and the region of interest appears red. Finally, the embryo is fixed and processed for phtograph and sectioning. A troubleshooting guide is also presented.

This video demonstrates 2-color whole mount in situ hybridization, a method by which the spatial and temporal expression pattern of 2 different genes can be visualized in young chick embryos. This method was originally introduced by David Wilkinson, Domingos Henrique, Phil Ingham and David Ish -Horowicz.

Monte Whole dupla hibridização in situ de embriões de galinha precoce

Assay for Neural Induction in the Chick Embryo

The chick embryo is a valuable tool in the study of early embryonic development. Its transparency, accessibility and ease of manipulation, make it an ideal tool for studying the formation and initial patterning of the nervous system. This video demonstrates how to graft organizer tissue into a host, a method by which Hensen s node (the organizer in the chick embryo) is grafted to a host competent ectoderm. The organizer graft instructs overlying na ve tissue to adopt a neural fate via neural inducing signals. This mechanism is referred to as neural induction, and constitutes the initial step in the formation of brain and spinal cord in amniotes. This method is essentially used for the characterization of putative neural inducing molecules in chick. This video demonstrates the different steps in the assay for neural induction; First, the donnor embryo is explanted and pinned on a dish. Then, the host embryo is prepared for New culture. The graft is excised and transplanted to the host area pellucida margin. The host is cultured for 18-22 hrs. The assembly is fixed and processed for further applications (e.g. in situ hybridization). This method was originally devised by Waddington 1,2 and Gallera 3,4.

Neural induction is the first step in the formation of the brain. It is a mechanism by which Hensen's node (organizer), instructs adjacent tissue to adopt a neural fate, i.e. to give rise to the nervous system. This video demonstrates an assay for neural induction in chick embryo.

Ensaio para Indução Neural no embrião de galinha

Elevated Plus Maze for Mice

Although the mouse genome is now completely sequenced, the functions of most of the genes expressed in the brain are not known. The influence of a given gene on a specific behavior can be determined by behavioral analysis of mutant mice. If a target gene is expressed in the brain, behavioral phenotype of the mutant mice could elucidate the genetic mechanism of normal behaviors. The elevated plus maze test is one of the most widely used tests for measuring anxiety-like behavior. The test is based on the natural aversion of mice for open and elevated areas, as well as on their natural spontaneous exploratory behavior in novel environments. The apparatus consists of open arms and closed arms, crossed in the middle perpendicularly to each other, and a center area. Mice are given access to all of the arms and are allowed to move freely between them. The number of entries into the open arms and the time spent in the open arms are used as indices of open space-induced anxiety in mice. Unfortunately, the procedural differences that exist between laboratories make it difficult to duplicate and compare results among laboratories. Here, we present a detailed movie demonstrating our protocol for the elevated plus maze test. In our laboratory, we have assessed more than 90 strains of mutant mice using the protocol shown in the movie. These data will be disclosed as a part of a public database that we are now constructing.
Visualization of the protocol will promote better understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used in different laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test. 


The elevated plus maze test is one of the most widely used tests for measuring anxiety-like behavior in mice. Here, we present a movie showing the detailed procedures for conducting the test.

Labirinto elevado para Ratos

Although the mouse genome is now completely sequenced, the functions of most of the genes expressed in the brain are not known. The influence of a given ...

Dissection of Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus from Adult Mouse

The hippocampus is one of the most widely studied areas in the brain because of its important functional role in memory processing and learning, its remarkable neuronal cell plasticity, and its involvement in epilepsy, neurodegenerative diseases, and psychiatric disorders. The hippocampus is composed of distinct regions; the dentate gyrus, which comprises mainly granule neurons, and Ammon's horn, which comprises mainly pyramidal neurons, and the two regions are connected by both anatomic and functional circuits. Many different mRNAs and proteins are selectively expressed in the dentate gyrus, and the dentate gyrus is a site of adult neurogenesis; that is, new neurons are continually generated in the adult dentate gyrus. To investigate mRNA and protein expression specific to the dentate gyrus, laser capture microdissection is often used. This method has some limitations, however, such as the need for special apparatuses and complicated handling procedures. In this video-recorded protocol, we demonstrate a dissection technique for removing the dentate gyrus from adult mouse under a stereomicroscope. Dentate gyrus samples prepared using this technique are suitable for any assay, including transcriptomic, proteomic, and cell biology analyses. We confirmed that the dissected tissue is dentate gyrus by conducting real-time PCR of dentate gyrus-specific genes, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2) and desmoplakin (Dsp), and Ammon's horn enriched genes, Meis-related gene 1b (Mrg1b) and TYRO3 protein tyrosine kinase 3 (Tyro3). The mRNA expressions of TDO2 and Dsp in the dentate gyrus samples were detected at obviously higher levels, whereas Mrg1b and Tyro3 were lower levels, than those in the Ammon's horn samples. To demonstrate the advantage of this method, we performed DNA microarray analysis using samples of whole hippocampus and dentate gyrus. The mRNA expression of TDO2 and Dsp, which are expressed selectively in the dentate gyrus, in the whole hippocampus of alpha-CaMKII+/- mice, exhibited 0.037 and 0.10-fold changes compared to that of wild-type mice, respectively. In the isolated dentate gyrus, however, these expressions exhibited 0.011 and 0.021-fold changes compared to that of wild-type mice, demonstrating that gene expression changes in dentate gyrus can be detected with greater sensitivity. Taken together, this convenient and accurate dissection technique can be reliably used for studies focused on the dentate gyrus.

A dissection technique for removal of the dentate gyrus from adult mouse under a stereomicroscope was demonstrated in this video-recorded protocol.

Dissecção do giro denteado do hipocampo de rato adulto

The hippocampus is one of the most widely studied areas in the brain because of its important functional role in memory processing and learning, its ...

A Practical Approach to Genetic Inducible Fate Mapping: A Visual Guide to Mark and Track Cells In Vivo

Fate maps are generated by marking and tracking cells in vivo to determine how progenitors contribute to specific structures and cell types in developing and adult tissue. An advance in this concept is Genetic Inducible Fate Mapping (GIFM), linking gene expression, cell fate, and cell behaviors in vivo, to create fate maps based on genetic lineage.
GIFM exploits X-CreER lines where X is a gene or set of gene regulatory elements that confers spatial expression of a modified bacteriophage protein, Cre recombinase (CreERT). CreERT contains a modified estrogen receptor ligand binding domain which renders CreERT sequestered in the cytoplasm in the absence of the drug tamoxifen. The binding of tamoxifen releases CreERT, which translocates to the nucleus and mediates recombination between DNA sequences flanked by loxP sites. In GIFM, recombination typically occurs between a loxP flanked Stop cassette preceding a reporter gene such as GFP.
Mice are bred to contain either a region- or cell type-specific CreER and a conditional reporter allele. Untreated mice will not have marking because the Stop cassette in the reporter prevents further transcription of the reporter gene. We administer tamoxifen by oral gavage to timed-pregnant females, which provides temporal control of CreERT release and subsequent translocation to the nucleus removing the Stop cassette from the reporter. Following recombination, the reporter allele is constitutively and heritably expressed. This series of events marks cells such that their genetic history is indelibly recorded. The recombined reporter thus serves as a high fidelity genetic lineage tracer that, once on, is uncoupled from the gene expression initially used to drive CreERT.
We apply GIFM in mouse to study normal development and ascertain the contribution of genetic lineages to adult cell types and tissues. We also use GIFM to follow cells on mutant genetic backgrounds to better understand complex phenotypes that mimic salient features of human genetic disorders.
This video article guides researchers through experimental methods to successfully apply GIFM. We demonstrate the method using our well characterized Wnt1-CreERT;mGFP mice by administering tamoxifen at embryonic day (E)8.5 via oral gavage followed by dissection at E12.5 and analysis by epifluorescence stereomicroscopy. We also demonstrate how to micro-dissect fate mapped domains for explant preparation or FACS analysis and dissect adult fate-mapped brains for whole mount fluorescent imaging. Collectively, these procedures allow researchers to address critical questions in developmental biology and disease models.

A Practical Approach to Genetic Inducible Fate Mapping: A Visual Guide to Mark and Track Cells In Vivo

Genetic Inducible Fate Mapping (GIFM) marks and tracks cells with fine spatial and temporal control in vivo and elucidates how cells from a specific genetic lineage contribute to developing and adult tissues. Demonstrated here are the techniques required to fate map E12.5 mouse embryos for epifluorescent and explant analysis.

Uma Abordagem Prática para mapeamento genético induzível Fate: Um Guia Visual para Mark e Track Células In Vivo</em

Fate maps are generated by marking and tracking cells in vivo to determine how progenitors contribute to specific structures and cell types in developing ...

An Allele-specific Gene Expression Assay to Test the Functional Basis of Genetic Associations

The number of significant genetic associations with common complex traits is constantly increasing. However, most of these associations have not been understood at molecular level. One of the mechanisms mediating the effect of DNA variants on phenotypes is gene expression, which has been shown to be particularly relevant for complex traits1.
This method tests in a cellular context the effect of specific DNA sequences on gene expression. The principle is to measure the relative abundance of transcripts arising from the two alleles of a gene, analysing cells which carry one copy of the DNA sequences associated with disease (the risk variants)2,3. Therefore, the cells used for this method should meet two fundamental genotypic requirements: they have to be heterozygous both for DNA risk variants and for DNA markers, typically coding polymorphisms, which can distinguish transcripts based on their chromosomal origin (Figure 1). DNA risk variants and DNA markers do not need to have the same allele frequency but the phase (haplotypic) relationship of the genetic markers needs to be understood. It is also important to choose cell types which express the gene of interest. This protocol refers specifically to the procedure adopted to extract nucleic acids from fibroblasts but the method is equally applicable to other cells types including primary cells.
DNA and RNA are extracted from the selected cell lines and cDNA is generated. DNA and cDNA are analysed with a primer extension assay, designed to target the coding DNA markers4. The primer extension assay is carried out using the MassARRAY (Sequenom)5 platform according to the manufacturer's specifications. Primer extension products are then analysed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS). Because the selected markers are heterozygous they will generate two peaks on the MS profiles. The area of each peak is proportional to the transcript abundance and can be measured with a function of the MassARRAY Typer software to generate an allelic ratio (allele 1: allele 2) calculation. The allelic ratio obtained for cDNA is normalized using that measured from genomic DNA, where the allelic ratio is expected to be 1:1 to correct for technical artifacts. Markers with a normalised allelic ratio significantly different to 1 indicate that the amount of transcript generated from the two chromosomes in the same cell is different, suggesting that the DNA variants associated with the phenotype have an effect on gene expression. Experimental controls should be used to confirm the results.

Genetic associations often remain unexplained at a functional level. This method aims to assess the effect of phenotype-associated genetic markers on gene expression by analyzing cells heterozygous for transcribed SNPs. The technology allows accurate measurement by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry to quantify allele-specific primer extension products.

Um alelo-específico do ensaio Expressão Gênica para testar as bases funcionais das Associações de Genética

The number of significant genetic associations with common complex traits is constantly increasing. However, most of these associations have not been ...

Pharmacological and Functional Genetic Assays to Manipulate Regeneration of the Planarian Dugesia japonica

Free-living planarian flatworms have a long history of experimental usage owing to their remarkable regenerative abilities1. Small fragments excised from these animals reform the original body plan following regeneration of missing body structures. For example if a 'trunk' fragment is cut from an intact worm, a new 'head' will regenerate anteriorly and a 'tail' will regenerate posteriorly restoring the original 'head-to-tail' polarity of body structures prior to amputation (Figure 1A).
Regeneration is driven by planarian stem cells, known as 'neoblasts' which differentiate into ~30 different cell types during normal body homeostasis and enforced tissue regeneration. This regenerative process is robust and easy to demonstrate. Owing to the dedication of several pioneering labs, many tools and functional genetic methods have now been optimized for this model system. Consequently, considerable recent progress has been made in understanding and manipulating the molecular events underpinning planarian developmental plasticity2-9.
The planarian model system will be of interest to a broad range of scientists. For neuroscientists, the model affords the opportunity to study the regeneration of an entire nervous system, rather than simply the regrowth/repair of single nerve cell process that typically are the focus of study in many established models. Planarians express a plethora of neurotransmitters10, represent an important system for studying evolution of the central nervous system11, 12 and have behavioral screening potential13, 14. 
Regenerative outcomes are amenable to manipulation by pharmacological and genetic apparoaches. For example, drugs can be screened for effects on regeneration simply by placing body fragments in drug-containing solutions at different time points after amputation. The role of individual genes can be studied using knockdown methods (in vivo RNAi), which can be achieved either through cycles of microinjection or by feeding bacterially-expressed dsRNA constructs8, 9, 15. Both approaches can produce visually striking phenotypes at high penetrance- for example, regeneration of bipolar animals16-21. To facilitate adoption of this model and implementation of such methods, we showcase in this video article protocols for pharmacological and genetic assays (in vivo RNAi by feeding) using the planarian Dugesia japonica.

Pharmacological and Functional Genetic Assays to Manipulate Regeneration of the Planarian Dugesia japonica

An attractive model for studying stem cell differentiation within a live animal is the planarian flatworm. Regeneration is studied by simple amputation experiments that are easily performed in a basic laboratory and are amenable to pharmacological and genetic (in vivo RNAi) manipulation as detailed by protocols in this article.

Farmacológica e funcional Ensaios genética para manipular Regeneração da planária Dugesia japonica</em

Free-living planarian flatworms have a long history of experimental usage owing to their remarkable regenerative abilities1. Small fragments excised from ...

Rapid Genetic Analysis of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Signaling During Hair Regeneration

Hair follicle morphogenesis, a complex process requiring interaction between epithelia-derived keratinocytes and the underlying mesenchyme, is an attractive model system to study organ development and tissue-specific signaling. Although hair follicle development is genetically tractable, fast and reproducible analysis of factors essential for this process remains a challenge. Here we describe a procedure to generate targeted overexpression or shRNA-mediated knockdown of factors using lentivirus in a tissue-specific manner. Using a modified version of a hair regeneration model 5, 6, 11, we can achieve robust gain- or loss-of-function analysis in primary mouse keratinocytes or dermal cells to facilitate study of epithelial-mesenchymal signaling pathways that lead to hair follicle morphogenesis. We describe how to isolate fresh primary mouse keratinocytes and dermal cells, which contain dermal papilla cells and their precursors, deliver lentivirus containing either shRNA or cDNA to one of the cell populations, and combine the cells to generate fully formed hair follicles on the backs of nude mice. This approach allows analysis of tissue-specific factors required to generate hair follicles within three weeks and provides a fast and convenient companion to existing genetic models.

Tissue-specific analysis of a hair follicle regeneration model using lentivirus to mediate gain- or loss-of-function.