Este trabalho foi apoiado pelo Instituto Nacional de Ciências Médicas Gerais (MNR; U54GM104942), NIA (MNR; R15AG045812), Associação de Alzheimer (MNR; NIRG-12-242187), WVU Faculdade Research Senado Grant (MNR), e WVU PSCOR Grant (RNM).

<ol>
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GG é o único proprietário de Quanteon, LLC que faz com que o sistema de gravação FAST-16 usado para medições de glutamato neste estudo. JEQ é um consultor pago para Quanteon.

A técnica MEA permite a medição da cinética rápida de libertação de neurotransmissores e a absorção in vitro e in vivo. Assim, a tecnologia produz uma vasta variedade de saída de dados, incluindo os níveis de neurotransmissores tónicas, a libertação de neurotransmissores evocados, e depuração neurotransmissor. No entanto, porque o uso de AAM é um procedimento relativamente complexo, existem numerosos factores que podem necessitar de ser optimizado para utilização com sucesso. Por exe...

Medindo alterações de neurotransmissores no cérebro é uma ferramenta essencial para neurocientistas o estudo de doenças do sistema nervoso central (SNC) que são muitas vezes caracterizados por desregulao de neurotransmissores. Embora microdiálise em combinação com cromatografia líquida de alta pressão (HPLC / CE) tem sido o método mais amplamente utilizado para medir alterações nos níveis de neurotransmissores extracelulares 1, 2, 3, 4, a resolução espacial e temporal de sondas de microdiálise pode não ser ideal para neurotransmissores , tais como o glutamato, que são estreitamente regulada no espaço extracelular 5, 6. Devido aos recentes avanços na genética e na imagem, existem métodos adicionais que podem ser utilizadas para mapear glutamato in vivo. Usando repórteres glutamato fluorescentes geneticamente codificados (iGluSnFR) umd de dois fotões imagiologia, os investigadores são capazes de visualizar a libertação de glutamato por neurónios e astrócitos, tanto in vitro e in vivo, 7, 8, 9. Notavelmente, este permite a gravação de um maior campo de visão e não perturbar as ligações intrínsecas do cérebro. Enquanto estas novas técnicas ópticas permitem a visualização da cinética de glutamato e medição de respostas evocadas sensoriais e actividade neuronal, eles não têm a capacidade para quantificar a quantidade de glutamato no espaço extracelular em regiões cerebrais discretas. Um método alternativo é a matriz de microeléctrodos ligado a enzima (MEA), que pode medir selectivamente níveis de neurotransmissores extracelulares, tais como o glutamato, através da utilização de um esquema de gravao por auto-referenciados. A técnica MEA tem sido usado para estudar alterações na glutamato extracelular seguintes cerebral traumáticalesão 10, 11, 12, envelhecimento 13, 14, estresse 15, 16, epilepsia 17, 18, doença de Alzheimer 19, 20, e a injecção de um mímico viral 21 e representa um aperfeiçoamento em relação às limitações espaciais e temporais inerentes microdiálise. Considerando microdiálise restringe a capacidade de medir perto da sinapse 22, 23, AAM têm uma alta resolução espacial que permite a medidas selectivas de transbordamento glutamato extracelular perto sinapses 24, 25. Em segundo lugar, a resolução temporal baixa de microdiálise (1-20 min) limita a capacidade para investigar odinâmica rápida de liberação de glutamato e desembaraço que ocorrem no milésimo de segundo para a segunda faixa de 26. Como as diferenças na libertação ou alívio de glutamato pode não ser evidente em medidas de tónico, descansando os níveis de glutamato, pode ser essencial que a libertação de glutamato e depuração ser directamente medido. AAM permitir tais medidas, devido à sua alta resolução temporal (2 Hz) e baixos limites de detecção (&lt;1 um). Em terceiro lugar, AAM permitir a análise de alterações em sub neurotransmissores dentro de uma região particular do cérebro, tais como o hipocampo de rato ou de ratinho. Por exemplo, usando MEAs que pode ter como alvo, separadamente, o giro dentado (DG), cornu Ammonis 3 (CA3) e cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1), do hipocampo, as quais estão ligadas através de um circuito trisynaptic 27, para examinar as diferenças sub em glutamato extracelular. Por causa do tamanho das sondas de microdiálise (1 - 4 mm) de comprimento e o dano causado pela implantação 28 &lt;/ sup&gt;, 29, as diferenças sub-regionais são difíceis de abordar. Além disso, os sistemas ópticos de só permitir a estimulação através de estímulos externos, tais como uma estimulação suiça ou cintilação luz, que não permite a estimulação sub-7. Um benefício final de AAM em relação a outros métodos, é a capacidade para estudar estas sub-regiões in vivo, sem perturbar as ligações extrínsecos e intrínsecos. Aqui, descrevemos a forma como um sistema de gravação (por exemplo, FAST16mkIII) em combinação com AAM, que consiste de um microeléctrodo de vários locais de cerâmica à base, pode ser diferencialmente revestido sobre os locais de gravação para permitir a agentes interferentes a ser detectado e removido o sinal de analito. Nós também demonstrar estas matrizes podem ser utilizadas para estudos baseados em amperometria de glutamato in vivo regulação dentro da DG, CA3, e sub-regiões do hipocampo CA1 de RTG anestesiado (TauP301L) 4510 ratinhos, um m utilizadamodelo ouse da doença de Alzheimer. Além disso, nós fornecemos confirmação da sensibilidade do sistema de MEA com a dinâmica rápidas de libertação de glutamato e depuração por tratamento dos ratinhos com o riluzol, uma droga demonstrado in vitro para diminuir a libertação de glutamato e aumentar a captação de glutamato 30, 31, 32, 33, e demonstrando essas respectivas alterações in vivo no modelo do rato TauP301L.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>FAST-16mkIII-8 channel</td>
			<td>Quanteon</td>
			<td>16mkIII</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microelectrode arrays</td>
			<td>CenMet</td>
			<td>W4 or 8-TRK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A-3059</td>
			<td>10 g (expires after 1 month)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G-6257</td>
			<td>100 mL (expires after 6 months)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamate Oxidase</td>
			<td>US Biological or Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G4001-01 or 100646</td>
			<td>50 UI (expires after 6 months)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hamilton Syringes</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>#701</td>
			<td>2 syringes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>BDH</td>
			<td>UN1230</td>
			<td>4 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>m-Phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (mPD)</td>
			<td>ACROS Organics</td>
			<td>1330560250</td>
			<td>25 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reference Electrodes (RE-5B)</td>
			<td>BAS</td>
			<td>MF-2079</td>
			<td>3 electrodes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic stir plate</td>
			<td>Cole-parmer</td>
			<td>EW-04804-01</td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G-1626</td>
			<td>100 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ascorbic Acid</td>
			<td>TCI</td>
			<td>50-81-7</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dopamine Hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>62-31-7</td>
			<td>5 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Perchloric acid</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>UN2920</td>
			<td>500 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Postassium chloride</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>7447-40-7</td>
			<td>1 kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>7647-40-7</td>
			<td>1 kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td>MP</td>
			<td>153502</td>
			<td>100 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Hydroxide</td>
			<td>BDH</td>
			<td>1310732</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass pressure ejection pipettes</td>
			<td>CenMet</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sticky wax</td>
			<td>Kerrlab</td>
			<td>625</td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsyringe</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>MF28G-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Modeling clay</td>
			<td>WalMart</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Picospritzer III</td>
			<td>Parker</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silver wire</td>
			<td>AM systems</td>
			<td>782000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>BDH</td>
			<td>7647010</td>
			<td>2.5 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Platinum wire</td>
			<td>AM Systems</td>
			<td>778000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Solder gun</td>
			<td>Lowes or Home Depot</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multimeter</td>
			<td>WalMart</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PhysioSuite</td>
			<td>Kent Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SomnoSuite</td>
			<td>Kent Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotaxic device</td>
			<td>Stoelting</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Lab Standard</td>
			<td>Stoelting</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Meiji EMZ microscope</td>
			<td>Meiji</td>
			<td>EMZ-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Drill</td>
			<td>Dremel</td>
			<td>Micro</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metricide</td>
			<td>Metrex</td>
			<td>102800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgery scissors</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile cotton swabs</td>
			<td>Puritan</td>
			<td>25806</td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eye ointment</td>
			<td>Puralube Vet Ointment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Obtain from the vet</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iodine swabs</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>S48050</td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alcohol swabs</td>
			<td>Local drug store</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile surgery drape</td>
			<td>Dynarex</td>
			<td>4410</td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile saline</td>
			<td>Teknova</td>
			<td>S5815</td>
			<td>Can make own soltuion using filters</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen Peroxide (3%)</td>
			<td>Local drug store</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heating Pad</td>
			<td>WalMart</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can purchase from different supplier</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using enzyme-based biosensors to measure tonic and phasic glutamate in alzheimer's mouse models

interrupção neurotransmissor é muitas vezes um componente-chave de doenças do sistema nervoso central (CNS), desempenhando um papel na patologia subjacente a doença de Alzheimer, doença de Parkinson, depressão e ansiedade. Tradicionalmente, microdiálise foi o mais comum (louvado) técnica para examinar as alterações de neurotransmissores que ocorrem nestes distúrbios. Mas porque microdiálise tem a capacidade de medir as alterações lentas 1-20 minutos através de grandes áreas de tecido, ele tem a desvantagem de invasividade, potencialmente destruir as ligações intrínsecas dentro do cérebro e uma capacidade de amostragem lenta. Uma técnica relativamente nova, a matriz de microeléctrodos (MEA), tem numerosas vantagens para a medição de alterações de neurotransmissores específicos dentro de regiões cerebrais discretas à medida que ocorrem, para fazer uma abordagem espacialmente e temporalmente preciso. Além disso, utilizando AAM é minimamente invasivo, permitindo a medição de alterações de neurotransmissores in vivo. Em nosso laboratório, nós have sido especificamente interessados ​​em mudanças no neurotransmissor, glutamato, relacionada com a patologia da doença de Alzheimer. Como tal, o método descrito aqui foi usado para avaliar as perturbações do hipocampo potenciais em glutamato em um modelo de rato transgénico da doença de Alzheimer. Resumidamente, o método utilizado envolve o revestimento de um microeléctrodo de multi-local com uma enzima muito selectiva para o neurotransmissor de interesse e utilizando locais de auto-referenciar para subtrair o ruído de fundo e os interferentes. Depois de plaqueamento e de calibração, o MEA pode ser construído com uma micropipeta e reduzido para a região do cérebro de interesse utilizando um dispositivo estereotáxico. Aqui, o método descrito envolve a anestesiar RTG (TauP301L) 4510 e ratinhos utilizando um dispositivo estereotáxico para alvejar com precisão sub-regiões (DG, CA1, e CA3) do hipocampo.

Embora esta tecnologia pode ser usada para medir alterações na glutamatérgica sinalização em muitos tipos de modelos animais, tais como lesão traumática cerebral, envelhecimento, estresse e epilepsia, aqui vamos demonstrar como a tecnologia MEA pode ser usado para examinar alterações glutamatérgicos no modelo de rato transgénico de taupatia humano 19, 20. O RTG (TauP301L) 4510 ratinho expressa a mutao P301L em tau asso...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using Enzyme-based Biosensors to Measure Tonic and Phasic Glutamate in Alzheimer's Mouse Models at JoVE.com

Using Enzyme-based Biosensors to Measure Tonic and Phasic Glutamate in Alzheimer's Mouse Models

Aqui, descrevemos a configuração, navegação software e análise de dados para um método espacial e temporalmente precisa de medir a tônica e fásica mudanças glutamato extracelulares in vivo utilizando matrizes de microeletrodos ligado a enzima (MEA).

Utilizando biossensores baseados em Enzyme medir Tonic e Phasic glutamato na doença de Alzheimer rato Models

Neurotransmitter disruption is often a key component of diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), playing a role in the pathology underlying ...

using-enzyme-based-biosensors-to-measure-tonic-phasic-glutamate

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

11.2K visualizações.  West Virginia University.  Aqui, descrevemos a configuração, navegação software e análise de dados para um método espacial e temporalmente precisa de medir a tônica e fásica mudanças glutamato extracelulares in vivo utilizando matrizes de microeletrodos ligado a enzima (MEA). 

Vídeo: Using Enzyme-based Biosensors to Measure Tonic and Phasic Glutamate in Alzheimer's Mouse Models

Mouse Models of Periventricular Leukomalacia

We describe a protocol for establishing mouse models of periventricular leukomalacia (PVL). PVL is the predominant form of brain injury in premature infants and the most common antecedent of cerebral palsy. PVL is characterized by periventricular white matter damage with prominent oligodendroglial injury. Hypoxia/ischemia with or without systemic infection/inflammation are the primary causes of PVL. We use P6 mice to create models of neonatal brain injury by the induction of hypoxia/ischemia with or without systemic infection/inflammation with unilateral carotid ligation followed by exposure to hypoxia with or without injection of the endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Immunohistochemistry of myelin basic protein (MBP) or O1 and electron microscopic examination show prominent myelin loss in cerebral white matter with additional damage to the hippocampus and thalamus. Establishment of mouse models of PVL will greatly facilitate the study of disease pathogenesis using available transgenic mouse strains, conduction of drug trials in a relatively high throughput manner to identify candidate therapeutic agents, and testing of stem cell transplantation using immunodeficiency mouse strains.

We established mouse models of periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), the predominant brain injury in premature infants characterized by periventricular white matter lesions. Hypoxia/ischemia with/without systemic infection are the primary causes of PVL. Unilateral carotid ligation and hypoxia exposure with/without lipopolysaccharide injection creates PVL-like lesions in P6 mice.

Modelos de mouse de leucomalácia periventricular

We describe a protocol for establishing mouse models of periventricular leukomalacia (PVL). PVL is the predominant form of brain injury in premature ...

Neurociência

Hyponeophagia: A Measure of Anxiety in the Mouse

Before the present day, when fast-acting and potent rodenticides such as alpha-chloralose were not yet in use, the work of pest controllers was often hampered by a phenomenon known as "bait shyness". Mice and rats cannot vomit, due to the tightness of the cardiac sphincter of the stomach, so to overcome the problem of potential food toxicity they have evolved a strategy of first ingesting only very small amounts of novel substances. The amounts ingested then gradually increase until the animal has determined whether the substance is safe and nutritious. So the old rat-catchers would first put a palatable substance such as oatmeal, which was to be the vehicle for the toxin, in the infested area. Only when large amounts were being readily consumed would they then add the poison, in amounts calculated not to affect the taste of the vehicle. The poisoned bait, which the animals were now readily eating in large amounts, would then swiftly perform its function.
Bait shyness is now used in the behavioural laboratory as a way of measuring anxiety. A highly palatable but novel substance, such as sweet corn, nuts or sweetened condensed milk, is offered to the mice (or rats) in a novel situation, such as a new cage. The latency to consume a defined amount of the new food is then measured.
Robert M.J. Deacon can be reach at <a href="mailto:robert.deacon@psy.ox.ac.uk">robert.deacon@psy.ox.ac.uk</a>

Mice and rats, due to their innate cautiousness, are initially slow in consuming a novel food, particularly in a novel place. This hyponeophagia can readily be measured in the laboratory, even though laboratory animals are much less anxious than their wild counterparts

Hyponeophagia: Uma Medida de ansiedade no rato

Before the present day, when fast-acting and potent rodenticides such as alpha-chloralose were not yet in use, the work of pest controllers was often ...

Detection of Neuritic Plaques in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder leading to dementia. Neuritic plaque formation is one of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. The central component of neuritic plaques is a small filamentous protein called amyloid &beta; protein (A&beta;)1, which is derived from sequential proteolytic cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) by &beta;-secretase and &gamma;-secretase. The amyloid hypothesis entails that A&gamma;-containing plaques as the underlying toxic mechanism in AD pathology2. The postmortem analysis of the presence of neuritic plaque confirms the diagnosis of AD. To further our understanding of A&gamma; neurobiology in AD pathogenesis, various mouse strains expressing AD-related mutations in the human APP genes were generated. Depending on the severity of the disease, these mice will develop neuritic plaques at different ages. These mice serve as invaluable tools for studying the pathogenesis and drug development that could affect the APP processing pathway and neuritic plaque formation. In this protocol, we employ an immunohistochemical method for specific detection of neuritic plaques in AD model mice. We will specifically discuss the preparation from extracting the half brain, paraformaldehyde fixation, cryosectioning, and two methods to detect neurotic plaques in AD transgenic mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thiofalvin S staining method.

One of the pathological characteristics of AD is the formation of Amyloid &#x03B2; protein positive neuritic plaques. In this protocol we describe two methods to detect neuritic plaques in transgenic AD model mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thioflavin S staining method.

Detecção de placas neuríticas no rato da doença de Alzheimer Modelo

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder leading to dementia. Neuritic plaque formation is one of the pathological hallmarks ...

GABA-activated Single-channel and Tonic Currents in Rat Brain Slices

The GABAA channels are present in all neurons and are located both at synapses and outside of synapses where they generate phasic and tonic currents, respectively 4,5,6,7 The GABAA channel is a pentameric GABA-gated chloride channel. The channel subunits are grouped into 8 families (&alpha;1-6, &beta;1-3, &gamma;1-3, &delta;, &#949;, &theta;, &pi; and &rho;). Two alphas, two betas and one 3rd subunit form the functional channel 8. By combining studies of sub-type specific GABA-activated single-channel molecules with studies including all populations of GABAA channels in the neuron it becomes possible to understand the basic mechanism of neuronal inhibition and how it is modulated by pharmacological agents.
We use the patch-clamp technique 9,10 to study the functional properties of the GABAA channels in alive neurons in hippocampal brain slices and record the single-channel and whole-cell currents. We further examine how the channels are affected by different GABA concentrations, other drugs and intra and extracellular factors. For detailed theoretical and practical description of the patch-clamp method please see The Single-Channel Recordings edited by B Sakman and E Neher 10.

We use the patch-clamp technique to measure GABA-activated single-channel currents (GABAA channels, GABAA receptors) and the synaptic and tonic currents they generate in neurons. Activation of the channels decreases neuronal excitability in health and disease 1,2,3,4.

GABA-activated Correntes canal único e Tonic em fatias de cérebro de rato

The GABAA channels are present in all neurons and are located both at synapses and outside of synapses where they generate phasic and tonic currents, ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

Rápido Micro-iontoforese de glutamato e GABA: uma ferramenta útil para investigar Integração Synaptic

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Stereotaxic Infusion of Oligomeric Amyloid-beta into the Mouse Hippocampus

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the over-production of amyloid-beta and the deposition of amyloid-beta plaques in brain regions of the afflicted individuals. Throughout the years scientists have generated numerous Alzheimer&#8217;s disease mouse models that attempt to replicate the amyloid-beta pathology. Unfortunately, the mouse models only selectively mimic the disease features. Neuronal death, a prominent effect in the brains of Alzheimer&#8217;s disease patients, is noticeably lacking in these mice. Hence, we and others have employed a method of directly infusing soluble oligomeric species of amyloid-beta - forms of amyloid-beta that have been proven to be most toxic to neurons - stereotaxically into the brain. In this report we utilize male C57BL/6J mice to document this surgical technique of increasing amyloid-beta levels in a select brain region. The infusion target is the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus because this brain structure, along with the basal forebrain that is connected by the cholinergic circuit, represents one of the areas of degeneration in the disease. The results of elevating amyloid-beta in the dentate gyrus via stereotaxic infusion reveal increases in neuron loss in the dentate gyrus within 1 week, while there is a concomitant increase in cell death and cholinergic neuron loss in the vertical limb of the diagonal band of Broca of the basal forebrain. These effects are observed up to 2 weeks. Our data suggests that the current amyloid-beta infusion model provides an alternative mouse model to address region specific neuron death in a short-term basis. The advantage of this model is that amyloid-beta can be elevated in a spatial and temporal manner.

Here, we present a protocol for direct stereotaxic brain infusion of amyloid-beta. This methodology provides an alternative in vivo mouse model to address the short-term effects of amyloid-beta on brain neurons.

Infusão estereotáxica de oligomica beta-amilóide no ratinho Hippocampus

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the ...

Combined Optogenetic and Freeze-fracture Replica Immunolabeling to Examine Input-specific Arrangement of Glutamate Receptors in the Mouse Amygdala

Freeze-fracture electron microscopy has been a major technique in ultrastructural research for over 40 years. However, the lack of effective means to study the molecular composition of membranes produced a significant decline in its use. Recently, there has been a major revival in freeze-fracture electron microscopy thanks to the development of effective ways to reveal integral membrane proteins by immunogold labeling. One of these methods is known as detergent-solubilized Freeze-fracture Replica Immunolabeling (FRIL).
The combination of the FRIL technique with optogenetics allows a correlated analysis of the structural and functional properties of central synapses. Using this approach it is possible to identify and characterize both pre- and postsynaptic neurons by their respective expression of a tagged channelrhodopsin and specific molecular markers. The distinctive appearance of the postsynaptic membrane specialization of glutamatergic synapses further allows, upon labeling of ionotropic glutamate receptors, to quantify and analyze the intrasynaptic distribution of these receptors. Here, we give a step-by-step description of the procedures required to prepare paired replicas and how to immunolabel them. We will also discuss the caveats and limitations of the FRIL technique, in particular those associated with potential sampling biases. The high reproducibility and versatility of the FRIL technique, when combined with optogenetics, offers a very powerful approach for the characterization of different aspects of synaptic transmission at identified neuronal microcircuits in the brain.
Here, we provide an example how this approach was used to gain insights into structure-function relationships of excitatory synapses at neurons of the intercalated cell masses of the mouse amygdala. In particular, we have investigated the expression of ionotropic glutamate receptors at identified inputs originated from the thalamic posterior intralaminar and medial geniculate nuclei. These synapses were shown to relay sensory information relevant for fear learning and to undergo plastic changes upon fear conditioning.

This article illustrates how the expression of neurotransmitter receptors can be quantified and the pattern analyzed at synapses with identified pre and postsynaptic elements using a combination of viral transduction of optogenetic tools and the freeze-fracture replica immunolabeling technique.

Combinado optogenética e Freeze-fratura Replica imunomarcação para examinar Arranjo específicos de entrada de glutamato receptores no mouse Amygdala

Freeze-fracture electron microscopy has been a major technique in ultrastructural research for over 40 years. However, the lack of effective means to ...

A Simple Way to Measure Alterations in Reward-seeking Behavior Using Drosophila melanogaster

We describe a protocol for measuring ethanol self-administration in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a proxy for changes in reward states. We demonstrate a simple way to tap into the fly reward system, modify experiences related to natural reward, and use voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure for changes in reward states. The approach serves as a relevant tool to study the neurons and genes that play a role in experience-mediated changes of internal state. The protocol is composed of two discrete parts: exposing the flies to rewarding and nonrewarding experiences, and assaying voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure of the motivation to obtain a drug reward. The two parts can be used independently to induce the modulation of experience as an initial step for further downstream assays or as an independent two-choice feeding assay, respectively. The protocol does not require a complicated setup and can therefore be applied in any laboratory with basic fly culture tools.

A Simple Way to Measure Alterations in Reward-seeking Behavior Using Drosophila melanogaster

We describe a protocol for inducing rewarding and nonrewarding experiences in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) using voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure for changes in reward states.

Uma maneira simples para medir alterações na Recompensa comportamento de busca Usando<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

We describe a protocol for measuring ethanol self-administration in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a proxy for changes in reward states. We ...

Using Near-infrared Fluorescence and High-resolution Scanning to Measure Protein Expression in the Rodent Brain

Neuroscience is the study of how cells in the brain mediate various functions. Measuring protein expression in neurons and glia is critical for the study of neuroscience as cellular function is determined by the composition and activity of cellular proteins. In this article, we describe how immunocytochemistry can be combined with near-infrared high-resolution scanning to provide a semi-quantitative measure of protein expression in distinct brain regions. This technique can be used for single or double protein expression in the same brain region. Measuring proteins in this fashion can be used to obtain a relative change in protein expression with an experimental manipulation, molecular signature of learning and memory, activity in molecular pathways, and neural activity in multiple brain regions. Using the correct proteins and statistical analysis, functional connectivity among brain regions can be determined as well. Given the ease of implementing immunocytochemistry in a laboratory, using immunocytochemistry with near-infrared high-resolution scanning can expand the ability of the neuroscientist to examine neurobiological processes at a systems level.

Here, we present a protocol that uses near-infrared dyes in conjunction with immunohistochemistry and high-resolution scanning to assay proteins in brain regions.

Usando a fluorescência near-infrared e a exploração de alta resolução para medir a expressão da proteína no cérebro do roedor

Neuroscience is the study of how cells in the brain mediate various functions. Measuring protein expression in neurons and glia is critical for the study ...

Stereological Estimation of Cholinergic Fiber Length in the Nucleus Basalis of Meynert of the Mouse Brain

The length of cholinergic or other neuronal axons in various brain regions are often correlated with the specific function of the region. Stereology is a useful method to quantify neuronal profiles of various brain structures. Here we provide a software-based stereology protocol to estimate the total length of cholinergic fibers in the nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM) of the basal forebrain. The method uses a space ball probe for length estimates. The cholinergic fibers are visualized by choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) immunostaining with the horseradish peroxidase-diaminobenzidine (HRP-DAB) detection system. The staining protocol is also valid for fiber and cell number estimation in various brain regions using stereology software. The stereology protocol can be used for estimation of any linear profiles such as cholinoceptive fibers, dopaminergic/catecholaminergic fibers, serotonergic fibers, astrocyte processes, or even vascular profiles.

Neuronal fiber length within a three-dimensional structure of a brain region is a reliable parameter to quantify specific neuronal structural integrity or degeneration. This article details a stereological quantification method to measure cholinergic fiber length within the nucleus basalis of Meynert in mice as an example.

Estimativa estereológica do comprimento da fibra cholinergica no Núcleo Basalis de Meynert do Cérebro do Rato

The length of cholinergic or other neuronal axons in various brain regions are often correlated with the specific function of the region. Stereology is a ...