When a salt dissolves in water, the cation and anion dissociate. Each ion attracts ions of the opposite charge due to electrostatic attraction. This ionic ...

Adding 50 mmol of potassium nitrate to a liter of saturated aqueous calcium sulfate solution leads to the concentrations of dissolved calcium and sulfate ...

The activity of a species is a measure of its effective concentration and considers additional factors, like the effect of electrolytes on the chemical ...

Activity is the measure of effective concentration. It is unitless and can be expressed as the product of the molar concentration of the species and its ...

Recall that the solubility of a sparingly soluble salt increases with the addition of an inert salt in a phenomenon known as the salt effect. The extent ...

The activity coefficient of an ion depends on the ionic strength of the solution. As indicated by the Debye–Hückel theory, when the ionic ...

In systems with multiple equilibria, the equilibrium calculations use a systematic approach involving a series of steps to make sure there are as many ...

The definition of the pH of a solution as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration is valid only for an ideal solution. In practice, the ...

Ladder diagrams are graphical representations useful for evaluating the chemistry of a given system during analysis. A Ladder diagram used for assessing ...

Ladder diagrams representing redox equilibria use electrochemical potential, E, as their scale. Consider the half-cell reaction between Fe3+ and an ...

For metal-ligand complexation equilibria, the scale of the ladder diagram is denoted by the concentration of unreacted or free ligand, where the ...

Consider a saturated solution of sparingly soluble salt calcium fluoride with excess solid calcium fluoride. The already dissolved calcium fluoride has ...

Water is a weak electrolyte and undergoes a small amount of self-ionization. At any given temperature, the concentration of undissociated water is ...

In complexation reactions, metal cations form complexes with compounds called ligands with unshared pairs of electrons that satisfy the metal ion ...

Recall that in complexation, metal ions react with ligands to form complexes. These ligands can be either monodentate with one donor site or polydentate ...

The stability of metal complexes depends on the nature of the central metal ion and the attached ligands. So, small ions with a high positive charge on ...

An Oxidation-reduction or redox reaction involves the transfer of electrons from the reducing agent to the oxidizing agent. Species that undergo an ...

In chemistry, titrimetric methods are broadly classified into three types: volumetric, gravimetric, and coulometric. Volumetric titrations involve ...

Titrimetric analysis in solution chemistry involves measuring the volume of solutions and is often called volumetric analysis. The standard solution of ...