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Chapter 5

Learning

Introduction to Learning
Introduction to Learning
Learning involves acquiring knowledge or skills through practice, experience, or observation. The results seen after learning are relatively permanent ...
Associative Learning
Associative Learning
Associative learning occurs when a connection is made between two stimuli or events. For example, a child may learn to clean their room regularly if they ...
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
While studying dogs' digestive systems, Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered that behaviors can be learned through association. He noticed ...
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning typically has five key principles. During acquisition, a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, is paired with an unconditioned ...
Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning
Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning has real-world applications dependent on the conditioning order. Higher-order or second-order conditioning occurs when a neutral ...
Classical Conditioning in Daily Life
Classical Conditioning in Daily Life
Classical conditioning can explain several commonly observed behaviors in daily life. Watson and Rayner observed that pairing a white rat with a loud ...
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning involves reinforcing or punishing behavior to alter its likelihood. For example, praising a child for completing homework exemplifies ...
Law of Effect
Law of Effect
B. F. Skinner built the theory of operant conditioning on the concept of the law of effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike. Thorndike placed a hungry cat in ...
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Reinforcement can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement adds something desirable, and negative reinforcement removes something undesirable. ...
Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness
Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness
Avoidance learning is a distinct response to negative reinforcement. It occurs when an individual learns that a specific behavior, such as avoiding ...
Punishment
Punishment
Negative reinforcement and punishment serve distinct functions in behavior modification. Negative reinforcement improves the desired behavior by removing ...
Role of Shaping in Operant Conditioning
Role of Shaping in Operant Conditioning
Shaping is a method in operant conditioning where successive approximations of a target behavior are rewarded. For instance, an individual learns to write ...
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Primary reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities that are not learned. For humans, primary reinforcers include food, sleep, affection, and shelter, ...
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction
Generalization, discrimination, and extinction are key concepts in operant conditioning. Generalization involves performing a reinforced behavior in ...
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous reinforcement, like giving a dog a treat every time it sits in a place, reinforces the sitting behavior. Conversely, partial reinforcement ...
Timing and Consequences on Behavior
Timing and Consequences on Behavior
In operant conditioning, timing is crucial for reinforcement. Studies show that animals such as rats and cats require immediate reinforcement for ...
Behavior Modification
Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a method used to change someone's behavior through a system of rewards and punishments. It uses operant conditioning to ...
Cognitive Learning
Cognitive Learning
Cognitive learning includes purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning. Tolman proposed that behavior is goal-directed and must be ...
Purposive Learning
Purposive Learning
Tolman emphasized that behavior is often purposive or goal-directed. For instance, an employee working towards a promotion consistently puts in extra ...
Observational Learning
Observational Learning
Observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, occurs when an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. The Bobo doll ...
Steps in the Modeling Process
Steps in the Modeling Process
Modeling involves four key steps. The first step is attention. Consider a yoga session in which the instructor shows all the participants how to perform ...
Conditioned Taste Aversion
Conditioned Taste Aversion
Conditioned taste aversion, also known as sauce bearnaise syndrome, occurs when classical conditioning leads to avoidance reactions to certain food ...
Preparedness and Phobias
Preparedness and Phobias
Phobias such as darkness, heights, deep water, and blood are common among people and often occur without any prior frightening experiences. Evolution ...
Instinctive Drift
Instinctive Drift
Instinctive drift refers to the tendency of animals to revert to their innate behaviors despite repeated reinforcement. Breland and Breland conducted an ...
Metacognition
Metacognition
Metacognition is a conscious process where individuals are aware of their cognitive processes and executive functioning. For example, a writer reflecting ...
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