Chapter 13
An Overview of the Cardiovascular System: Anatomy, Physiology, Assessment, and Abnormalities
Anatomy of the Heart
The human heart is a hollow cone-shaped muscle that comprises three layers.
The outermost layer is the epicardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and ...
Anatomy of Blood Vessels
The vascular system is a circulatory network of arteries and veins essential for maintaining homeostasis.
The arteries carry oxygenated blood from the ...
Physiology of the Heart: The Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle occurs during a complete heartbeat and consists of three phases: diastole, atrial systole, and ventricular systole.
The cardiac cycle ...
Conduction System of the Heart
The cardiac conduction system initiates and transmits electrical impulses that trigger myocardial contraction, ensuring efficient heart function.
The ...
Cardiac Action Potential
A cardiac action potential involves a series of electrical changes across the heart cell membrane, leading to contraction and relaxation.
Nodal cells and ...
Cardiac Output I:Effect of Heart Rate on Cardiac Output
Cardiac output is the amount of blood pushed by one ventricle per minute. It is measured in liters per minute and calculated by multiplying the heart rate ...
Cardiac Output II: Effect of Stroke Volume on Cardiac Output
Cardiac output is the amount of blood pushed by one ventricle per minute.
A key component of cardiac output is stroke volume, the blood volume pushed from ...
Regulation of the Cardiovascular System
The regulation of the cardiovascular system is essential for maintaining homeostasis.
This process involves the autonomic nervous system, baroreceptors, ...
Assessment of the Cardiovascular System I: Subjective Data
Cardiovascular assessment involves gathering subjective data covering the following elements.
First, ask the patient to verbalize about past medical and ...
Assessment of the Cardiovascular System II: Inspection
Inspection is the first step in assessing the cardiovascular system, providing vital information about circulatory and cardiac health.
Begin by placing ...
Assessment of the Cardiovascular System III: Palpation
Palpation in cardiovascular examination assesses jugular pressure, maximal impulse, pulses, capillary refill, and edema.
First, place the patient in a ...
Assessment of the Cardiovascular System IV: Auscultation
Cardiac auscultation involves listening to heart sounds using a stethoscope.
The normal heart sounds are S1 and S2 and are heard using the ...
Cardiovascular System Abnormal Findings I: Inspection and Palpation
Abnormal findings during the inspection and palpation of a cardiovascular examination include the following:
First, examine for signs of distress, such as ...
Cardiovascular System Abnormal Findings II: Auscultation
Abnormal heart sounds such as S3 and S4 gallops, opening snaps, systolic clicks, and murmurs occur due to structural or functional issues during systole ...
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