Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse functions and can be broadly classified as protein-coding or non-coding RNA. Non-coding RNAs play important roles in regulating gene expression in response to developmental and environmental changes. Non-coding RNAs in prokaryotes can be manipulated to develop more effective antibacterial drugs for human or animal use.

RNA Performs Diverse but Cooperative Functions

The central dogma of molecular biology states that DNA contains the information that encodes proteins, and RNA uses this information to direct protein synthesis.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the protein-coding RNA. It consists of codons—sequences of three nucleotides that encode a specific amino acid. Transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) are non-coding RNA. tRNA acts as an adaptor molecule that reads the mRNA sequence and places amino acids in the correct order in the growing polypeptide chain. rRNA and other proteins make up the ribosome—the seat of protein synthesis in the cell. During translation, ribosomes move along an mRNA strand where they stabilize the binding of tRNA molecules and catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids. Thus, different types of RNA perform specific but complementary functions during protein synthesis.

Non-coding RNAs in Eukaryotes Regulate Gene Expression

Non-coding RNAs other than tRNA and rRNA were initially considered "genomic junk" since they did not encode proteins. However, their roles in regulating gene expression were discovered over the past few decades and continue to be extensively researched. Based on their length, non-coding RNAs may be classified as small regulatory RNAs (< 100 nucleotides) or long non-coding RNAs (> 200 nucleotides).

Both small regulatory RNAs and long non-coding RNAs regulate gene expression by altering various stages of transcription and translation. Non-coding RNAs affect mRNA splicing—removal of non-coding segments and joining the protein-coding sequences. In this manner, they control the formation of different protein variants from a single gene. Small regulatory RNAs such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) bind to complementary sequences on mRNA and inhibit protein synthesis either by blocking the access of the translation machinery to the mRNA or by degrading the mRNA itself. Long non-coding RNAs interact with and recruit enzymes that chemically modify DNA and histones — proteins that help package DNA into the nucleus — to either activate or repress transcription.