JoVE Logo
Authors
Contact Us

Sign In

A subscription to JoVE is required to view this content. Sign in or start your free trial.

In This Article

  • Summary
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Protocol
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Disclosures
  • Acknowledgements
  • Materials
  • References
  • Reprints and Permissions

Summary

Here, we present a method for reproducible generation of ventral midbrain patterned astrocytes from hiPSCs and protocols for their characterization to assess phenotype and function.

Abstract

In Parkinson's disease, progressive dysfunction and degeneration of dopamine neurons in the ventral midbrain cause life-changing symptoms. Neuronal degeneration has diverse causes in Parkinson's, including non-cell autonomous mechanisms mediated by astrocytes. Throughout the CNS, astrocytes are essential for neuronal survival and function, as they maintain metabolic homeostasis in the neural environment. Astrocytes interact with the immune cells of the CNS, microglia, to modulate neuroinflammation, which is observed from the earliest stages of Parkinson's, and has a direct impact on the progression of its pathology. In diseases with a chronic neuroinflammatory element, including Parkinson's, astrocytes acquire a neurotoxic phenotype, and thus enhance neurodegeneration. Consequently, astrocytes are a potential therapeutic target to slow or halt disease, but this will require a deeper understanding of their properties and roles in Parkinson's. Accurate models of human ventral midbrain astrocytes for in vitro study are therefore urgently required.

We have developed a protocol to generate high purity cultures of ventral midbrain-specific astrocytes (vmAstros) from hiPSCs that can be used for Parkinson's research. vmAstros can be routinely produced from multiple hiPSC lines, and express specific astrocytic and ventral midbrain markers. This protocol is scalable, and thus suitable for high-throughput applications, including for drug screening. Crucially, the hiPSC derived-vmAstros demonstrate immunomodulatory characteristics typical of their in vivo counterparts, enabling mechanistic studies of neuroinflammatory signaling in Parkinson's.

Introduction

Parkinson's disease affects 2%-3% of people over 65 years of age, making it the most prevalent neurodegenerative movement disorder1. It is caused by degeneration of ventral midbrain dopamine neurons within the substantia nigra, resulting in debilitating motor symptoms, as well as frequent cognitive and psychiatric issues2. Parkinson's pathology is typified by aggregates of the protein, α-synuclein, which are toxic to neurons and result in their dysfunction and death1,2,3. As the dopaminergic neurons are the degenerating population in Parkinson's, they were historically the focus of research. However, it is apparent that another cell type in the brain, the astrocytes, also demonstrate abnormalities in Parkinson's, and are believed to contribute to degeneration in models of Parkinson's4,5,6,7.

Astrocytes are a heterogenous cell population that can transform both physically and functionally as required. They support neuronal function and health via a plethora of mechanisms, including the modulation of neuronal signaling, shaping of synaptic architecture, and trophic support of neuronal populations via secretion of specific factors6,8,9,10. However, astrocytes also have a substantial immunomodulatory role, integral to the development and propagation of neuroinflammation10,11. Neuroinflammation is observed in the brains of Parkinson’s patients, and significantly has recently been shown to pre-empt the onset of Parkinson's symptoms12,13,14,15, thereby taking the center stage in Parkinson's research.

At a cellular level, astrocytes are said to become reactive in response to injury, infection, or disease, as an attempt to facilitate neuroprotection9,6,10,16. Reactivity describes a shift in astrocyte phenotype characterized by changes in gene expression, secretome, morphology, and mechanisms of clearance of cell debris and toxic byproducts9,10,11,17. This reactive shift occurs in response to inductive signals from microglia, which are the immune cells of the CNS and the first responders to injury and disease9. Both astrocytes and microglia respond to inflammatory signals by moderating their own function and can transduce inflammatory signals and thus directly influence neuroinflammation9,10. However, the chronic nature of Parkinson's results in a transition where reactive astrocytes become toxic to neurons, and themselves promote degeneration and disease pathology6,9,10,18,19. Significantly it was recently demonstrated that blocking the transformation of astrocytes into the reactive neurotoxic phenotype prevents the progression of Parkinson's in animal models11. Astrocyte reactivity in the paradigm of neuroinflammation has therefore become a major focus of Parkinson's research, and similarly relates to a wide spectrum of diseases of the CNS. Together these findings build a picture of significant astrocytic involvement in the etiology of Parkinson's, emphasizing the need for accurate research models that recapitulate the phenotype of the human astrocyte populations that are involved in Parkinson's.

In the embryonic brain, neurons appear first, with the astroglial lineage, namely, the astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, appearing later in development6. In vivo and in vitro studies have highlighted a number of signaling pathways that appear to control the potency of neural progenitor cells from neuronal to astroglial derivatives. In particular, JAK/STAT, EGF, and BMP signaling play roles in the proliferation, differentiation, and maturation of astroglia20,21. These pathways have been the focus of in vitro protocols for the generation of astrocytes from pluripotent cells, including hiPSC6,22,23. There have been many successful examples of generating astrocytes from hiPSCs6,24,25. However, it is apparent that in vivo astrocytes in the CNS possess specific regional identities, which relate directly to their function, in accordance with the specific requirements of those astrocytes in relation to their specialized neuronal neighbors17,24,25,26. For example, relating specifically to the ventral midbrain, it has been demonstrated that astrocytes in this region express specific sets of proteins, including receptors for dopamine enabling communication with the local population of midbrain dopamine neurons26. Furthermore, ventral midbrain astrocytes demonstrate unique signaling properties26. Therefore, to study the role of ventral midbrain astrocytes in Parkinson's, we require an in vitro model that reflects their unique set of characteristics.

To address this, we have developed a protocol to generate ventral midbrain astrocytes (vmAstros) from hiPSCs. The resulting vmAstros exhibit characteristics of their in vivo ventral midbrain counterparts such as expression of specific proteins, as well as immunomodulatory functions. The results presented are from the differentiation of the NAS2 and AST23 hiPSC lines, which were derived and gifted to us by Dr. Tilo Kunath27. NAS2 was generated from a healthy control subject whereas AST23 is derived from a Parkinson's patient carrying a triplication in the locus encoding α-Synuclein (SNCA). These hiPSC lines have been previously characterized and used in a number of published research papers, including for the generation of various neural cell types27,28,29,30,31.

Protocol

1. Human hiPSC line thawing, maintenance, and cryopreservation

  1. For coating hiPSC culture plates, dilute vitronectin to 5 µg/mL (1:100) in PBS at 1 mL per 10 cm2 cell culture plate surface area. Leave for 1 h at room temperature.
  2. Remove vitronectin and proceed immediately to adding hiPSCs/media to the culture plate.
    NOTE When removing vitronectin from the plate, it is crucial that the culture surface is not allowed to dry out.
  3. To thaw hiPSCs, remove cryovials containing hiPSCs from liquid nitrogen and place in a 37 °C water bath until the contents have completely thawed.
  4. Prepare 9 mL of prewarmed cell culture medium (e.g., E8 or E8 Flex) containing 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell). Add 1 mL dropwise to the contents of the cryovial. Place the remaining 8 mL media into a 15 mL centrifuge tube and to this add the diluted contents of the cryovial.
    ​CAUTION: Do not triturate the contents.
  5. Centrifuge at 150 x g for 3 min. Aspirate the liquid without disturbing the cell pellet and resuspended in an appropriate volume of cell culture medium (e.g., E8 or E8 Flex) containing 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell). For example, 2 mL per well of a 6-well plate.
  6. Add resuspended hiPSCs to vitronectin coated dishes and place in 37 °C/5% CO2 incubator.
    NOTE: hiPSCs should start to attach to vitronectin coated plasticware in 30 min-2 h after thawing.
  7. Maintain hiPSCs in cell culture medium (e.g., E8 or E8 Flex). Feed cells daily by media exchange. Always prewarm culture media for 30 min before feeding.
    NOTE If using E8 Flex, hiPSCs do not require media changes every 24 h and feeding increments can be extended to 48 h, if needed. Either E8 Flex or E8 media yield equally high-quality hiPSC cultures. HiPSCs should be cultured for a minimum 14 days post-thawing, and prior to beginning the differentiation steps. Culture periods of less than 14 days appear to negatively impact the survival of the hiPSCs during the initial differentiation period.Passage hiPSCs at approximately 80% confluency (Figure 1A: 3-4 day passaging interval).
  8. 1 h prior to beginning, add 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell) to the hiPSC culture.
  9. Wash hiPSCs once with PBS (without calcium or magnesium) and add 0.5 mM EDTA (diluted from stock in PBS without calcium or magnesium).
  10. Incubate for 5 min at room temperature, or until the hiPSCs begin to detach from each other and take on a more rounded appearance, with the boundaries of each iPSC appearing brighter under a brightfield microscope.
  11. Add 200 µL EDTA on to a focused area of the hiPSCs with a pipette. If they readily detach, making a clear space in the cell layer, then they are ready to be harvested. If they do not readily detach, leave in EDTA and repeat after 1 min.
  12. When ready to proceed, gently remove EDTA, and using a pipette, gently wash the hiPSCs twice with cell culture medium (e.g., E8 or E8 Flex).
    NOTE: To achieve this without the hiPSCs detaching, tip the plate and add media dropwise down the side of the culture plate.
  13. To harvest hiPSCs use 1 mL cell culture medium (e.g., E8 or E8 Flex) containing 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell). Release the media directly onto the hiPSC layer and the cells should detach. If required, repeat with another 1 mL media.
  14. View the hiPSCs under the microscope. Ideally, hiPSCs should appear in relatively uniform clusters as shown in Figure 1B. If hiPSC clusters are much larger, or very variable in size, use the pipette to break up the larger hiPSC clusters (Figure 1B).
    NOTE Do not over-triturate hiPSCs. Although the supplement increases the overall cell survival, over trituration negatively impacts on the survival of the hiPSC culture. 1-4 passes with a pipette are recommended.
  15. Using a serological pipette, transfer the hiPSC suspension on to a vitronectin-coated plate as prepared in step 1.1. Return the hiPSC culture to the 37 °C/5% CO2 incubator.
    NOTE: Cryopreserve hiPSCs at approximately 80% confluency.
  16. 1 h prior to beginning, add 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell) to the hiPSC culture.
  17. Detach hiPSCs from culture plates using 0.5 mM EDTA as described in step1.4, collecting cells in cell culture medium (e.g., E8 or E8 Flex) containing 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell). Centrifuge at 150 x g for 3 min.
  18. Resuspend pelleted hiPSCs in cell freezing media (see Table of Materials). Use 700 µL per 10 cm2 culture area, equivalent to 1 cryovial of cells per well of a 6-well plate.
  19. Transfer cryovials into an appropriate cell freezing vessel (for details see Table of Materials).
  20. Transfer the freezing vessel to a -80 °C freezer for 24 h. After 24 h, cryovials can be transferred to liquid nitrogen (-196 °C) for long-term storage.

2. vmAstro Differentiation protocol

NOTE: A schematic summary of the vmAstros differentiation protocol is shown in Figure 1A. A detailed list of reagents required for the protocol and their preparation is given in Table 1.

  1. Induction of vmNPCs
    NOTE: This protocol has been optimized to begin with a minimum with 1x well of a 6-well plate (10 cm2) of hiPSCs 70%-80% confluency, which is approximately 4-5 x 104 cells/cm2 (Figure 1B)30. Starting cell number and density must be optimized for each hiPSC line as it significantly impacts survival and differentiation efficiency.
    1. Remove cell culture medium from hiPSCs and wash 3x in DMEM/F12 + glutamax. Replace media with 2 mL vmNPC induction media (N2B27 + CHIR99021 + SB431542 + SHH(C24ii) + LDN193189. See Table 1 for details of preparing media and reagents).
    2. Feed on alternate days with a half media change after 24 h, and a full media change at 48 h.
      ​NOTE: After 3-4 days the vmNPC culture will require passaging. A standard passaging ratio of 1:3 or 1:4 is recommended-this needs to be optimized for each hiPSC line used.
    3. 1 h before passaging, add 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell) to vmNPCs, and prepare 1x basement membrane matrix (e.g., Geltrex) coated tissue culture plastic (section 2.2 Preparing basement membrane matrix and coating rissue culture plastic).
    4. Remove the media from vmNPCs and wash 2x with D-PBS. Add 1 mL pre-warmed cell detachment solution (e.g., Accutase) per 10 cm2 culture area (1 mL per well of a 6-well plate).
    5. Place at 37 °C for 1 min and then examine vmNPCs using a phase contrast microscope.
      ​NOTE: The vmNPCs will start to round up, their processes will re-tract, and gaps will appear in the cell layer. This can take from 1-3 min depending on cell density.
    6. When vmNPCs take on this appearance, add 100 µL of cell detachment solution (e.g., Accutase) on to the layer of vmNPCs.
      ​NOTE: If the vmNPCs are ready to detach, a hole in the cell layer will appear. If this doesn't happen, then the vmNPCs require further incubation with cell detachment solution.
    7. If vmNPCs readily detach, then gently remove the cell detachment solution and wash vmNPCs 2x with N2B27 media. Add N2B27 media gently down the side of the well or culture vessel and gently swirl to wash, ensuring that vmNPCs do not detach.
      ​NOTE: This step must be completed quickly to ensure vmNPCs do not reattach to the cell surface. If vmNPCs start to detach in the wash steps, collect via centrifugation at 150 x g for 3 min. vmNPCs are not centrifuged as standard when passaging as this can reduce their survival.
    8. Finally, remove vmNPCs using a pipette, by vigorously ejecting vmNPC induction media containing 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell) directly on to the cell layer. This should remove vmNPCs, which can then be transferred directly into the new matrix-coated coated culture vessels.
      NOTE: Do not re-use media already containing resuspended vmNPCs to remove further cells as this will result in their over-trituration, which reduces their survival.
    9. Replace in 37 °C/5% CO2 incubator. vmNPCs should begin to attach to the matrix-coated surface after 20-30 min. Replace half of the media with fresh vmNPC induction media (without cell supplement) after 24 h and continue the feeding schedule as earlier.
    10. Continue the regime of feeding and passaging for 10 days.
  2. Preparing basement membrane matrix and coating tissue culture plastic
    NOTE: For maintaining vmNPCs 1x basement membrane matrix (e.g., Geltrex) is used for coating plasticware. For maintaining vmAPCs or vmAstros, 0.25x basement membrane matrix can be used.
    1. Remove basement membrane matrix stock from a -80 °C freezer and place in a 4 °C fridge overnight to thaw.
    2. Dilute 1:10 with ice cold DMEM/F12 + glutamax, aliquot and store at -80 °C as a 10x stock.
    3. When coating plasticware dilute this 10x stock to 1x (for vmNPCs) or 0.25x (for vmAPCs or vmAstros) with ice cold DMEM/F12 + glutamax.
    4. Immediately add to tissue culture plastic at 1 mL per 10 cm2, for example, 1 mL per well of a 6-well plate.
    5. Place at 37 °C for 1 h. The basement membrane matrix solution should not be removed from plasticware until ready to add media/cells to ensure the coated plasticware does not dry out. Matrix coated plates do not require washing before adding cells.
  3. Expansion of vmNPCs
    1. On day 10 of the protocol, replace the induction media with vmNPC expansion media (N2B27 + GDNF + BDNF + ascorbic acid. See Table 1 for details of preparing media and reagents).
      NOTE The vmNPCs do not require the addition of mitogens to induce proliferation. BDNF, GDNF, and ascorbic acid support the survival and maintenance of vmNPCs30.
    2. Feed on alternate days with a half media change after 24 h, and a full media change at 48 h.
      NOTE: After 3-4 days, the vmNPC culture will require passaging. For passaging, a standard passaging ratio of 1:3 or 1:4 is recommended (this needs to be optimized for each hiPSC line used. Determine the ratio that gives the best survival, proliferation, and generation of vmNPCs).
    3. 1 h before passaging, add 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell) to vmNPCs, and prepare 1x matrix coated plates/flasks in advance (section 2.2 Preparing basement membrane matrix and coating rissue culture plastic). Prewarm the cell detachment solution (e.g., Accutase) to 37 °C. Prewarm fresh vmNPC expansion media containing 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell).
    4. Remove media from vmNPCs and wash 2x with D-PBS. Add 1 mL cell detachment solution (e.g., Accutase) per 10 cm2 culture area (1 mL per well of a 6-well plate). Place at 37 °C for 1 min and then examine vmNPCs using a phase-contrast microscope.
      NOTE: The vmNPCs will start to round up, their processes will re-tract, and gaps will appear in the cell layer. This can take from 1-3 min depending on the cell density.
    5. When vmNPCs takes on a rounded appearance, add 100 µL of cell detachment solution (e.g., Accutase) on to the layer of vmNPCs.
      NOTE: If the vmNPCs are ready to detach, a hole in the cell layer will appear. If this doesn't happen, then the vmNPCs require further incubation with the cell detachment solution.
    6. If vmNPCs do readily detach, then gently remove the cell detachment solution and wash vmNPCs 2x with N2B27 media. Add N2B27 media gently down the side of the well or culture vessel and gently swirl to wash, ensuring that vmNPCs do not detach.
      NOTE: If vmNPCs start to detach in large numbers in the wash steps, collect via centrifugation at 150 x g for 3 min. vmNPCs are not centrifuged as standard when passaging as this can reduce their survival. This step must be completed quickly to ensure vmNPCs do not reattach to the cell surface.
    7. Remove vmNPCs using a pipette, and vigorously eject vmNPC expansion media containing 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell) directly on to the cell layer. This should remove vmNPCs, which can then be transferred directly into the preprepared matrix coated plates/flasks (see section 2.2 ‘Preparing basement membrane matrix and coating tissue culture plastic’).
      NOTE: Do not re-use media already containing resuspended vmNPCs to remove further cells as this will result in their over-trituration, which reduces their survival.
    8. Replace in 37 °C/5% CO2 incubator. vmNPCs should begin to attach to the matrix coated surface after 20-30 min. After 24 h, replace half of the culture media with fresh vmNPC expansion media (without cell supplement) and continue the previous feeding schedule.
    9. Continue this regime of feeding and passaging for 10 days. vmNPCs can be expanded up to day 50.
  4. Differentiation and expansion of vmAPCs
    NOTE: vmNPCs can be used successfully for the generation of vmAPCs/vmAstros anywhere between 30 and 50 days from the initial hiPSC stage (Figure 1A).
    1. Take a confluent vmNPC culture and wash vmNPCs 3x in advanced DMEM/F12 to remove traces of the components of vmNPC expansion media. Replace the media with vmAPC expansion media (ASTRO media +EGF +LIF. See Table 1 for details of preparing media and reagents).
    2. After 72 h passage, the vmNPC culture is at a high ratio (1:7.5). For example, assuming vmNPCs were maintained in a single well of a 6-well plate, they should now be passaged into a 1x matrix coated 75 cm2 flask (coated as described in section 2.2 ‘Preparing basement membrane matrix and coating tissue culture plastic’). Passage using cell detachment solution, as described for vmNPCs in section 2.3 ‘Expansion of vmNPCs’.
    3. Resuspend vmNPCs in an appropriate volume of vmAPC Expansion media (7.5-15 mL media per 75 cm2 flask. Complete media changes every 3 days, or as the cells require.
      NOTE: From this point on, vmNPCs are referred to as vmAPCs and should be passaged as single cells rather than cell clusters. vmAPCs should be passaged every 3-7 days or as they become confluent to avoid becoming over confluent. From this point onward the reduced concentration of 0.25x matrix should be used to coat plasticware (as described in section 2.2 Preparing basement membrane matrix and coating tissue culture plastic).
    4. Expand vmAPCs until they reach day 90 (from the hiPSC stage), cryopreserving vmAPCs at various points in their expansion.
  5. Generation of mature vmAstros from vmAPCs
    ​NOTE: At this stage, vmAPCs can be grown in 175 cm2 tissue culture flasks. This may be expanded for the generation of large numbers of mature vmAstros.
    1. When vmAPCs reach 80% confluency, wash 3x with ASTRO media and replace with vmAstros maturation media (ASTRO media +BMP4 +LIF. See Table 1 for details of preparing media and reagents).
    2. Carry out a complete media change every 3 days, or as the cells require, for 10 days.
      NOTE: a) At this point, characterization indicates that the vmAstros are mature, as confirmed by immunocytochemistry (Figure 2G - I) and by gene expression analysis (manuscript in preparation). b) vmAstros used immediately after maturation should be re-plated on a newly prepared matrix-coated surface. Maintaining either vmAPCs or vmAstros on the same culture surface for over 14 days could lead to suboptimal cultures, where cells begin to shrink in size and even detach. c) For applications examining neuroinflammatory modulation, BMP and LIF are removed 72 h prior to neuroinflammatory stimulation. This is to avoid any potential interaction between BMP/LIF signalling and induced neuroinflammatory signalling.
    3. vmAstros can now be re-plated for experimental assays, for example, onto coverslips for immunocytochemistry or cryopreserved for future applications (sections 3, 4).
      NOTE: Passaging should not be necessary at this stage of the protocol as proliferation should only occur at a very low rate. vmAPCs plated too densely at this stage maintain higher levels of proliferation. If this is the case, passage and split cells to achieve a density as is shown in Figure 1F.

3. Cryopreservation of vmNPCs, vmAPCs, and vmAstros

NOTE: Cryopreserve vmNPCs/vmAPCs/vmAstros at full confluency.

  1. 1 h prior to beginning, add 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell) to culture. Fill the cryostorage vessel (see Table of Materials) with isopropanol at room temperature.
  2. Detach the cells from the culture plates using cell detachment solution as previously described, collecting cells in appropriate media (N2B27 or ASTRO media) containing 1x cell supplement (e.g., Revitacell). Centrifuge at 150 x g for 3 min.
  3. Resuspend pelleted vmNPCs/vmAPCs/vmAstros in cell freezing media (see Table of Materials) volumes as follows (steps 3.3.1. - 3.3.3.)
    1. For vmNPCs: use 700 µL per 10 cm2 culture area, into 1 cryovial.
    2. For vmAPCs: use 700 µL per 60 cm2 culture area, into 1 cryovial (approximately 1/3 of a T175 culture flask).
    3. For vmAstros: resuspend in a 2 mL of media and count the number of vmAstros. Re-centrifuge and resuspend in cell freezing media (see Table of Materials) at a number per cryovial appropriate to future applications. Assuming an approximate cell loss of 15% due to freeze-thawing, newly thawed vmAstros are counted and plated with a 15% excess cell number to compensate for cell death in the freeze-thaw process. This is, therefore, equivalent to 74,750 vmAstros per cm2. Thawed vmAstros are maintained for 72 h in ASTRO media prior to assaying.
  4. Transfer the cryovials into a cell freezing vessel (for details see Table of Materials) and transfer the freezing vessel to a -80 °C freezer for 24 h. After 24 h, cryovials can be transferred to liquid nitrogen (-196 °C) for long-term storage.

4. Characterization of vmAstro phenotype

  1. Immunocytochemistry
    1. Place 100-200 13 mm glass coverslips in glass Petri dishes on a layer of filter paper and sterilize them in a dry autoclave.
    2. Transfer the coverslips to wells of 4- or 24-well plates using sterile forceps. Add 1x matrix solution (e.g., Geltrex) on the coverslips as 50 μL droplets and incubate at 37 °C for 1 h.
    3. Passage or thaw vmAstros, resuspend in ASTRO media and carry out a count. Plate vmAstros at 25-100,000 cells per coverslip in a 50 μL droplet.
    4. Remove the matrix from the coverslip and immediately add vmAstros in a droplet of media. Place at 37 °C for 30 min and then flood the wells with an additional 250 µL ASTRO media.
      ​NOTE: If carrying out immunocytochemistry to simply check for astrocyte and midbrain marker expression, vmAstros can be fixed 24 h after plating.
    5. Prepare 4% formaldehyde solution by diluting 36% formaldehyde solution 1:9 in D-PBS.
    6. Wash vmAstros 1x with D-PBS. Immediately add 4% formaldehyde to the wells and leave at room temperature for 10 min.
    7. Remove formaldehyde and replace with D-PBS. Either store at 4 °C or proceed to immunocytochemistry.
    8. Wash coverslips in wells 3x with D-PBS. Permeabilize and block in 10% goat serum, 1% BSA in 0.1% PBTx (D-PBS + 1:1000 Triton-X) for 1 h at room temperature.
    9. Add primary antibodies (Table of Materials) in 1% goat serum, 0.1% BSA in 0.1% PBTx (D-PBS + 1:1000 Triton-X) and incubate overnight at 4 °C on a rocker.
    10. On the next day, remove primary antibodies and wash coverslips 3x with D-PBS.
    11. Add appropriate secondary antibodies (Table of Materials) in 1% goat serum, 0.1% BSA in 0.1% PBTx, and incubate for 1-2 h at room temperature and protect it from light on a rocker. Wash coverslips 3x with D-PBS.
    12. Add DAPI solution (0.1 µg/mL DAPI in D-PBS) and incubate at room temperature for 10 min. Wash coverslips 3x with D-PBS.
    13. To mount the coverslip, add a 5 μL droplet of Mowiol/DABCO mounting media [12% Mowiol (w/v), 12% glycerol (w/v) dissolved overnight stirring in 0.2 M Tris (pH 8.5) with 25 mg/mL 1,4-diazabicylo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO)] to a glass microscope slide. Using forceps, carefully remove the coverslip from the well; dab the edge of the coverslip on the tissue to remove the excess liquid and place vmAstros side down onto the Mowiol/DABCO droplet.
    14. Repeat for each coverslip and leave to dry for 8 h before microscopic examination.
  2. ELISA measurement of vmAstros secretion of IL-6 in response to cytokine treatment
    NOTE: Following the 10-day maturation with BMP4 and LIF, vmAstros should be passaged, counted, and plated on 0.25x matrix-coated tissue culture plasticware (as detailed in section 2.2 Preparing basement membrane matrix and coating tissue culture plastic), at a density of 65,000 vmAstros per cm2 in ASTRO media. BMP4 and LIF should be removed from the vmAstros 72 h prior to cytokine treatment as active signaling from these factors can interfere with the efficacy of the cytokine treatment. Alternatively, cryopreserved vmAstros can be thawed and used for assays.
    1. On the day of the assay, gently wash vmAstros 3x in non-redox media (DMEM/F-12 + glutamax + N2).
    2. Use an untreated control and cytokine-treated well for comparison. Add chosen cytokine at optimized concentration. The data in Figure 2J - L were generated using IL-1α at 3 ng/mL9 in non-redox media at 1 mL per 10 cm2 cell culture area.
    3. Replace vmAstros in 37 °C/5% CO2 incubator for 24 h. After 24 h, collect culture media into sterile microfuge tubes.
    4. If ELISA will not be carried out immediately, snap freeze media samples by submerging microfuge tubes in liquid nitrogen and store at -80 °C for future analysis.
      NOTE: The following protocol is optimized specifically for use with the IL-6 ELISA kit detailed in the Table of Materials. Antibodies and standards delivered as lyophilized powder in a new ELISA kit must be reconstituted prior to first use, and aliquoted for future use. The data sheet provided with the kit details the reagents and volumes required for reconstitution. The capture antibody must be reconstituted in PBS (without carrier protein).
    5. Perform the ELISA in a 96-well plate format and calculate the volumes of reagents according to the wells used. On the day of ELISA, prepare capture antibody by diluting stock 1:120 in PBS. Coat the plate by loading 50 µL of capture antibody per well. Cover the plate with an adhesive strip and incubate at room temperature overnight.
    6. Next day, wash the plate 3x with D-PBS-Tween (D-PBS with 0.05% Tween-20), 100 µL per well. Blot dry.
    7. Block the plate by loading 150 µL D-PBS/1% BSA per well. Incubate at room temperature for at least 1 h. Wash plate as described.
    8. Thaw samples on ice (this can take 1-2 h). Dilute samples 1:5 by loading 10 µL sample and 40 µL D-PBS/1% BSA. Vortex every sample prior to loading.
      NOTE: It is necessary to dilute samples when carrying out an IL-6 ELISA, dilutions should be optimized.
    9. Prepare the top standard (1,000 ρg/mL) by diluting stock 1:180 in D-PBS/1% BSA. Prepare 7 standards by carrying out a serial dilution of the top standard. Vortex between each dilution.
    10. Add 50 µL of standards/samples to wells. Use D-PBS/1% BSA as the blank. Incubate at room temperature for 2 h on an orbital shaker to properly mix the diluted samples. Wash plate as described.
    11. Prepare detection antibody by diluting stock 1:60 in D-PBS/1% BSA. Load 50 µL of detection antibody per well. Cover the plate and incubate at RT for 2 h. Wash plate as described.
    12. Prepare streptavidin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (Strep-HRP) by diluting stock 1:40 in D-PBS/1% BSA. Load 50 µL Strep-HRP per well and incubate at room temperature for 20 min in the dark. Wash plate as described.
    13. Initiate the color reaction by loading 50 µL TMB substrate solution per well. Incubate at room temperature in the dark for 20 min (or until the standards and samples have developed a blue color).
      NOTE: TMB is stored at 4 °C but should be used at room temperature.
    14. Stop the reaction by adding 25 µL stop solution (1 M H2SO4) per well and note the color change from blue to yellow.
    15. Read the plate at 450 nm absorbance using a microplate reader. Set wavelength correction to 540 nm absorbance to maximize accuracy. Calculate the protein concentrations in the samples from the standard curve produced.

Results

Differentiation methodology and progression
Here we present the details of both the methods employed for the generation of vmAstros and the protocols used for their subsequent phenotypic characterization. The method for generation of vmAstros is made up of several distinct differentiation stages, which can be monitored by microscopy and identifying distinct morphological characteristics (Figure 1A-F). A feeder-free hiPSC culture (

Discussion

This method for the generation of vmAstros from hiPSCs is highly efficient, generating pure cultures of vmAstros, and being reproducible for the generation of vmAstros from different hiPSC lines. This protocol was developed around the recapitulation of the developmental events required in the embryo to correctly pattern the developing midbrain and generate astrocytes and comprises three defined stages: 1) neural ventral midbrain induction to generate vmNPCs, 2) generation and expansion of vmAPCs, and finally 3) maturatio...

Disclosures

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by a Parkinson's UK project grant (G-1402) and studentship. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Wolfson Bioimaging Facility for their support and assistance in this work.

Materials

NameCompanyCatalog NumberComments
Reagents
0.2M Tris-Cl (pH 8.5)n/an/aMade up from Tris base and plus HCl
0.5M EDTA, PH 8ThermoFisher 15575-0201:1000 in D-PBS to 0.5 mM final 
1,4-diazabicylo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO)SigmaD27802- 25 mg/mL in Mowiol mounting solution
13 mm coverslipsVWR631-0149
2-Mercaptoethanol (50 mM)ThermoFisher31350010
AccutaseThermoFisher13151014
Advanced DMEM/F12ThermoFisher12634010Has 1x NEAA but we add to final concentration of 2x (0.2 mM)
Ascorbic acidSigmaA5960200 mM stock, 1:1000 to 200 µM final
B27 SupplementThermoFisher17504-04450x stock
BSASigma5470
Cell freezing mediaSigmaC2874Cryostor CS10
Cell freezing vesselNalgene5100-0001
CHIR99021Axon Medchem13860.8 mM stock, 1:1000 dilution to 0.8 µM final
Cryovials SigmaCLS430487
DAPI SigmaD95421 mg/mL, 1:10,000 to 100ng/mL final (in PBS)
DMEM/F12 + GlutamaxThermoFisher10565018
Dulbeccos-PBS (D-PBS without Mg or Ca)ThermoFisher14190144pH 7.2
E8 Flex medium kitThermoFisherA2858501
Formaldehyde (36% solution)Sigma47608
GeltrexThermoFisherA14133021:100 or 1:400 in ice-cold DMEM/F12
GlutamaxThermoFisher350500382 mM stock (1:200 in N2B27, 1:100 in ASTRO media to 20 µM final) 
GlycerolSigmaG5516
Human BDNF Peprotech450-0220 µg/mL stock, 1:1000 to 20 ng/mL final
Human BMP4Peprotech120-0520 µg/mL stock, 1:1000 to 20 ng/mL final
Human EGFPeprotechAF-100-1520 µg/mL stock, 1:1000 to 20 ng/mL final
Human GDNFPeprotech450-1020 µg/mL stock, 1:1000 to 20 ng/mL final
Human insulin solutionSigma I927810 mg/mL stock, 1:2000 to 5 µg/mL final
Human LIFPeprotech300-0520 µg/mL stock, 1:1000 to 20 ng/mL final
IL-6 ELISA kitBiotechneDY206
IsopropanolSigma I9516-4LFor filling Mr Frosty cryostorage vessel
LDN193189SigmaSML0559100 µM stock, 1:10,000 dilution to 10 nM final
Mowiol 40-88Sigma324590
N2 SupplementThermoFisher17502048100x stock
NEAAThermoFisher1114003510 mM stock, 1:100 to 0.1 mM final 
Neurobasal mediaThermoFisher21103049
Normal Goat serumVector LabsS-1000-20
RevitacellThermoFisherA2644501100x stock, 1:100 to 1x final
SB431542Tocris161410 mM stock, 1:1000 dilution to 10 µM final
SHH-C24iiBiotechne1845-SH-025200 µg/mL stock, 1:1000 to 200 ng/mL final
Tris-HClSigma PHG0002 
Triton-XSigmaX100
Tween-20Sigma P7949
VitronectinThermoFisherA147001:50 in D-PBS
Antibodies for immunocytochemistry CompanyCatalogue NumberHost species
Antibody against S100bSigmaSAB4200671Mouse; 1:200
Antibody against FOXA2SCBTNB600501Mouse; 1:50
Antibody against LMX1AProSci7087Rabbit; 1:300
Antibody against LMX1AMilliporeAB10533Rabbit; 1:2000
Antibody against LMX1BProteintech18278-1-APRabbit; 1:300
Antibody against GLASTProteintech20785-1-APRabbit; 1:300
Antibody against GFAPDakoZ0334Rabbit; 1:400
Antibody against CD49fProteintech27189-1-APRabbit; 1:100
Antibody against MSI1Abcamab52865Rabbit; 1:400
Alexa Fluor 488 Goat Anti-Rabbit ThermoFisherA32731Goat; 1:500
Alexa Fluor 488 Goat Anti-MouseThermoFisherA32723Goat; 1:500
Alexa Fluor 568 Goat Anti-RabbitThermoFisherA11036Goat; 1:500
Alexa Fluor 488 Goat Anti-MouseThermoFisherA11031Goat; 1:500

References

  1. Poewe, W., et al. Parkinson disease. Nature Reviews Disease Primers. 3, 17013 (2017).
  2. Lees, A. J., Hardy, J., Revesz, T. Parkingson's disease. Lancet. 373, 2055-2066 (2009).
  3. Braak, H., et al. Staging of brain pathology related to sporadic Parkinson's disease. Neurobiology of Aging. 24, 197-211 (2003).
  4. Booth, H. D. E., Hirst, W. D., Wade-Martins, R. The role of astrocyte dysfunction in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Trends in Neurosciences. 40, 358-370 (2017).
  5. Lindstrom, V., et al. Extensive uptake of alpha-synuclein oligomers in astrocytes results in sustained intracellular deposits and mitochondrial damage. Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience. 82, 143-156 (2017).
  6. Crompton, L. A., Cordero-Llana, O., Caldwell, M. A. Astrocytes in a dish: Using pluripotent stem cells to model neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. Brain Pathology. 27, 530-544 (2017).
  7. di Domenico, A., et al. Patient-specific iPSC-derived astrocytes contribute to non-cell-autonomous neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Stem Cell Reports. 12, 213-229 (2019).
  8. Zhang, Y., Barres, B. A. Astrocyte heterogeneity: an underappreciated topic in neurobiology. Current Opinions in Neurobiology. 20, 588-594 (2010).
  9. Liddelow, S. A., et al. Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia. Nature. 541, 481-487 (2017).
  10. Liddelow, S. A., Barres, B. A. Reactive astrocytes: production, function, and therapeutic Potential. Immunity. 46, 957-967 (2017).
  11. Yun, S. P., et al. Block of A1 astrocyte conversion by microglia is neuroprotective in models of Parkinson's disease. Nature Medicine. 24, 931-938 (2018).
  12. Stokholm, M. G., et al. Assessment of neuroinflammation in patients with idiopathic rapid-eye-movement sleep behaviour disorder: a case-control study. The Lancet Neurology. 16, 789-796 (2017).
  13. Williams-Gray, C. H., et al. Serum immune markers and disease progression in an incident Parkinson's disease cohort (ICICLE-PD). Movement Disorders. 31, 995-1003 (2016).
  14. Gelders, G., Baekelandt, V., Vander Perren, A. Linking neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Immunology Research. 2018, 4784268 (2018).
  15. Hall, S., et al. Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of inflammatory markers in Parkinson's disease and atypical parkinsonian disorders. Scientific Reports. 8, 13276 (2018).
  16. Zamanian, J. L., et al. Genomic analysis of reactive astrogliosis. Journal of Neuroscience. 32, 6391-6410 (2012).
  17. Clarke, B. E., et al. Human stem cell-derived astrocytes exhibit region-specific heterogeneity in their secretory profiles. Brain. 143 (10), 85 (2020).
  18. Sevenich, L. Brain-resident microglia and blood-borne macrophages orchestrate central nervous system inflammation in neurodegenerative disorders and brain cancer. Frontiers in Immunology. 9, 697 (2018).
  19. Friedman, B. A., et al. Diverse brain myeloid expression profiles reveal distinct microglial activation states and aspects of Alzheimer's disease not evident in mouse models. Cell Reports. 22, 832-847 (2018).
  20. Viti, J., Feathers, A., Phillips, J., Lillien, L. Epidermal growth factor receptors control competence to interpret leukemia inhibitory factor as an astrocyte inducer in developing cortex. Journal of Neuroscience. 23, 3385-3393 (2003).
  21. Nakashima, K., Yanagisawa, M., Arakawa, H., Taga, T. Astrocyte differentiation mediated by LIF in cooperation with BMP2. FEBS Letters. 457, 43-46 (1999).
  22. Serio, A., et al. Astrocyte pathology and the absence of non-cell autonomy in an induced pluripotent stem cell model of TDP-43 proteinopathy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110, 4697-4702 (2013).
  23. Gupta, K., et al. Human embryonic stem cell derived astrocytes mediate non-cell-autonomous neuroprotection through endogenous and drug-induced mechanisms. Cell Death and Differentiation. 19, 779-787 (2012).
  24. Krencik, R., Ullian, E. M. A cellular star atlas: using astrocytes from human pluripotent stem cells for disease studies. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience. 7, 25 (2013).
  25. Krencik, R., Weick, J. P., Liu, Y., Zhang, Z. -. J., Zhang, S. -. C. Specification of transplantable astroglial subtypes from human pluripotent stem cells. Nature Biotechnology. 29, 528-534 (2011).
  26. Xin, W., et al. Ventral midbrain astrocytes display unique physiological features and sensitivity to dopamine D2 receptor signaling. Neuropsychopharmacology. 44, 344-355 (2019).
  27. Devine, M. J., et al. Parkinson's disease induced pluripotent stem cells with triplication of the alpha-synuclein locus. Nature Communications. 2, 440 (2011).
  28. Chen, Y., et al. Engineering synucleinopathy-resistant human dopaminergic neurons by CRISPR-mediated deletion of the SNCA gene. European Journal of Neuroscience. 49, 510-524 (2019).
  29. Crompton, L. A., et al. non-adherent differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells to generate basal forebrain cholinergic neurons via hedgehog signaling. Stem Cell Research. 11, 1206-1221 (2013).
  30. Stathakos, P., et al. A monolayer hiPSC culture system for autophagy/mitophagy studies in human dopaminergic neurons. Autophagy. , 1-17 (2020).
  31. Stathakos, P., et al. Imaging autophagy in hiPSC-derived midbrain dopaminergic neuronal cultures for Parkinson's disease research. Methods in Molecular Biology. 1880, 257-280 (2019).
  32. Bilican, B., et al. Mutant induced pluripotent stem cell lines recapitulate aspects of TDP-43 proteinopathies and reveal cell-specific vulnerability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109, 5803-5808 (2012).
  33. Cordero-Llana, O., et al. Clusterin secreted by astrocytes enhances neuronal differentiation from human neural precursor cells. Cell Death and Differentiation. 18, 907-913 (2011).
  34. Morrow, T., Song, M. R., Ghosh, A. Sequential specification of neurons and glia by developmentally regulated extracellular factors. Development. 128, 3585-3594 (2001).
  35. Namihira, M., et al. Committed neuronal precursors confer astrocytic potential on residual neural precursor cells. Developmental Cell. 16, 245-255 (2009).
  36. Ochiai, W., Yanagisawa, M., Takizawa, T., Nakashima, K., Taga, T. Astrocyte differentiation of fetal neuroepithelial cells involving cardiotrophin-1-induced activation of STAT3. Cytokine. 14, 264-271 (2001).
  37. Nakashima, K., Yanagisawa, M., Arakawa, H. Synergistic signaling in fetal brain by STAT3-Smad1 complex bridged by p300. Science. 284 (5413), 479-482 (1999).
  38. Nakashima, K., et al. Developmental requirement of gp130 signaling in neuronal survival and astrocyte differentiation. Journal of Neuroscience. 19, 5429-5434 (1999).
  39. Barbar, L., et al. CD49f is a novel marker of functional and reactive human iPSC-derived astrocytes. Neuron. 107, 436-453 (2020).
  40. Barbar, L., Rusielewicz, T., Zimmer, M., Kalpana, K., Fossati, V. Isolation of human CD49f(+) astrocytes and in vitro iPSC-based neurotoxicity assays. STAR Protocols. 1, 100-172 (2020).
  41. Gao, H. M., et al. Neuroinflammation and alpha-synuclein dysfunction potentiate each other, driving chronic progression of neurodegeneration in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Environmental Health Perspectives. 119, 807-814 (2011).
  42. Gao, H. M., et al. Neuroinflammation and oxidation/nitration of alpha-synuclein linked to dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Journal of Neuroscience. 28, 7687-7698 (2008).
  43. Horvath, I., et al. Co-aggregation of pro-inflammatory S100A9 with alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease: ex vivo and in vitro studies. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 15, 172 (2018).

Reprints and Permissions

Request permission to reuse the text or figures of this JoVE article

Request Permission

Explore More Articles

Human Ventral Midbrain AstrocytesHuman induced Pluripotent Stem CellsParkinson s DiseaseNeuronal DegenerationNeuroinflammationAstrocytesNeurotoxic PhenotypeTherapeutic TargetHigh Purity CulturesVentral Midbrain specific AstrocytesDrug ScreeningImmunomodulatory CharacteristicsIn Vitro StudyMechanistic Studies

This article has been published

Video Coming Soon

JoVE Logo

Privacy

Terms of Use

Policies

Contact Us

Recommend to library

JoVE NEWSLETTERS

Research

Education

Authors

Librarians

ABOUT JoVE

Copyright © 2025 MyJoVE Corporation. All rights reserved