An Intra-Tissue Radiometry Microprobe for Measuring Radiance In Situ in Living Tissue

Summary

In this paper, a method for measuring radiance in situ in living tissue is described. This work includes details of the construction of micro-scale probes for different measurements of radiance and irradiance, provides guidance for mounting tissue for the characterization of radiance, and outlines computational methods for analyzing the resulting data.

Abstract

Organisms appear opaque largely because their outer tissue layers are strongly scattering to incident light; strongly absorbing pigments, such as blood, typically have narrow absorbances, such that the mean free path of light outside the absorbance peaks can be quite long. As people cannot see through tissue, they generally imagine that tissues like the brain, fat, and bone contain little or no light. However, photoresponsive opsin proteins are expressed within many of these tissues, and their functions are poorly understood. Radiance internal to tissue is also important for understanding photosynthesis. For example, giant clams are strongly absorbing yet maintain a dense population of algae deep in the tissue. Light propagation through systems like sediments and biofilms can be complex, and these communities can be major contributors to ecosystem productivity. Therefore, a method for constructing optical micro-probes for measuring scalar irradiance (photon flux intersecting a point) and downwelling irradiance (photon flux crossing a plane perpendicularly) to better understand these phenomena inside living tissue has been developed. This technique is also tractable in field laboratories. These micro-probes are made from heat-pulled optical fibers that are then secured in pulled glass pipettes. To change the angular acceptance of the probe, a 10-100 µm sized sphere of UV-curable epoxy mixed with titanium dioxide is then secured to the end of a pulled, trimmed fiber. The probe is inserted into living tissue, and its position is controlled using a micromanipulator. These probes are capable of measuring in situ tissue radiance at spatial resolutions of 10-100 µm or on the scale of single cells. These probes were used to characterize the light reaching the adipose and brain cells 4 mm below the skin of a living mouse and to characterize the light reaching similar depths within living algae-rich giant clam tissue.

Introduction

Surprisingly, land animals and shallow ocean dwellers have enough light within their body for visual physiology and even photosynthesis. For example, the light levels in the center of a mouse's head (outside of the strong hemoglobin absorbance bands) are attenuated by three or four orders of magnitude relative to the outside world. This is roughly the difference between the light levels indoors and outside. So, the opacity of a tissue or material due to strong scattering is not the same as opacity due to strong light absorption. Light can keep propagating over long distances in a strongly forward-scattering system, similar to light propagating through aquatic syst....

Protocol

This study is compliant with all the relevant ethical regulations of Yale University regarding vertebrate and invertebrate animal research.

1. Building the optical micro-probe

1. Building the glass sleeve, material: Pasteur pipette, 5.75 in(see Table of Materials)
   1. Using a mountable alligator clip (Table of Materials), mount the glass pipette by the wide end such that the tapered end is facing down toward the floor and the .......

Discussion

This protocol describes a technique for systematically characterizing the optical environment through a large volume of living tissue with a spatial resolution approximately on the scale of single cells. This inexpensive, flexible, and field-tractable method could be useful to any researchers studying the propagation of light within living systems. From experience, compared to existing methods⁷, these probes require a little more practice and skill to build but result in less tissue damage and the.......

Materials

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
1" travel ball bearing center+D11+A2:D31+A2:A2:D31	Edmond Optics	37-935	Part 2 of manipulator for lowering sample
1/4" thick acrylic sheet	McMaster-Carr	8505K754	For making Petri dish holder
3/4" mini spring clamp	Anvil	99693	Use as weight for pulling optical fiber
8 mm biopsy punch	Fisher Scientific	NC9324386	For tissue sample
Butane Torch	McMaster-Carr	MT-51	Heat source for pulling fiber and pipette
Collimating lens	Thorlabs	LLG5A1-A	To collimate light source through liquid light guide
Compressed air	McMaster-Carr	7437K35	For drying pulled fiber and pipette
Cyanoacrylate glue - liquid	McMaster-Carr	66635A31	For securing tapered fiber end at top of pulled pipette
Electrical tape	McMaster-Carr	76455A21	For securing fiber in pipette and for adding grip to clamps
Fine grade carborundum paper	McMaster-Carr	4649A24	Small triangle on exacto knife holder works well
Gelatin	Knox	10043000048679	For securing the tissue biopsy in the petri dish
Glass Pasteur Pipete	Fisher Scientific	13-678-20B	Disposable glass pipette 5.75" in length
Insulin syringes, 31G needle	BD	320440	For applying glue
Isopropanol	McMaster-Carr	54845T42	For cleaning pulled fiber and pipette
Kimwipe	Cole-Parmer	SKU 33670-04	For wiping optical fiber and glass pipette clean
LED driver	Thorlabs	LEDD1B	For powering the UV LEDs
Light source for measurements	Cole-Parmer	UX-78905-05	Low heat white light source for measurements
Linear metric X-Y-Z axis rack and pinion stage	Edmond Optics	55-023	Part 1 of manipulator for lowering sample
Liquid light guide	Thorlabs	LLG5-4T	For light source in measurements
Magnetic feet	Siskiyou	MGB 8-32	For use with magnetic strips
Magnetic strips	Siskiyou	MS-6.0	For mounting magnetically to breadboard
Manipulator #1	Siskiyou	MX10R	4-axis manipulator with pipette holder
Opaquer pen, small	WindowTint	TOP01	For opaquing side of optical fiber to prevent stray light from enter probe
Optical breadboard	Edmond Optics	03-640	For stable affixation of probe holder, sample, microscope and light source
Optical fibers	Ocean Optics	P-100-2-UV-VIS	About 4 fibers are good to have
Plasma light source	Thorlabs	HPLS345	For tissue radiometry measurements
Plastic plier clamp	McMaster-Carr	5070A11	Plier clamp used for weight in pulling pipette
Polystyrene Petri dishes	Thomas scientific	3488N10	Sample holders, enough volume to hold sample thickness plus ~10 mm of gelatin on top
Razor blades	McMaster-Carr	3962A3	For stripping jacketing from optical fiber
Silicone oil lubricant	Thomas scientific	1232E30	For reducing friction between probe and tissue
Software for analyzing data	Matlab		Chosen software for data analysis
Spectrometer + spectrometer software	Avantes	AvaSpec-2048L	Spectrometer can be any brand, this one is compatible with sma-terminated optical fibers and comes with its own software for running the spectrometer
Titanium dioxide powder	Sigma Aldrich	718467-100G	For making scattering sphere
Toolour tabletop clip	Toolour	Toolour0004	For holding pipette while pulling and for holding finished probes
Trigger-action bar clamps	mcMaster-Carr	51755A2	Good for holding optical fibers while pulling or curing
UV curable adhesive	Delo Photobond	GB368	For making scattering sphere
UV light source	Thorlabs	M365FP1	Light source for curing adhesive in scattering ball, this one is sma-fiber compatible, higher intensity = less cure time
White LED light source	Thorlabs	MCWHF2	For characterizing pulled fiber and scattering sphere