Blocking Lymph Flow by Suturing Afferent Lymphatic Vessels in Mice

Lymphatic vessels are critical in maintaining tissue fluid balance and optimizing immune protection by transporting antigens, cytokines, and cells to ...

University of Calgary

The lymphatic system is intimately linked to tissue fluid homeostasis and immune cell trafficking. These functions are paramount in the establishment and development of an inflammatory response. In the past decade, an increasing number of reports has revealed that marked changes, such as lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic contractile dysfunction occur in both vascular and nodal parts of the lymphatic system during inflammation, as well as other disease processes. This review provides a critical update on the role of the lymphatic system in disease process such as chronic inflammation and cancer and examines the changes in lymphatic functions the diseases cause and the influence these changes have on the progression of the diseases. 

Inflammation-induced lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic dysfunction.

Lymphatic vessels are well known to participate in the immune response by providing the structural and functional support for the delivery of antigens and antigen presenting cells to draining lymph nodes. Recent advances have improved our understanding of how the lymphatic system works and how it participates to the development of immune responses. New findings suggest that the lymphatic system may control the ultimate immune response through a number of ways which may include guiding antigen/dendritic cells (DC) entry into initial lymphatics at the periphery; promoting antigen/DC trafficking through afferent lymphatic vessels by actively facilitating lymph and cell movement; enabling antigen presentation in lymph nodes via a network of lymphatic endothelial cells and lymph node stroma cell and finally by direct lymphocytes exit from lymph nodes. The same mechanisms are likely also important to maintain peripheral tolerance. In this review we will discuss how the morphology and gene expression profile of the lymphatic endothelial cells in lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes provides a highly efficient pathway to initiate immune responses. The fundamental understanding of how lymphatic system participates in immune regulation will guide the research on lymphatic function in various diseases. 

Lymphatic system: an active pathway for immune protection.

To date, antiangiogenic therapy has failed to improve overall survival in cancer patients when used in the adjuvant setting (local-regional disease with no detectable systemic metastasis). The presence of lymph node metastases worsens prognosis, however their reliance on angiogenesis for growth has not been reported.

Investigation of the Lack of Angiogenesis in the Formation of Lymph Node Metastases.

Neutrophils: multitasking first responders of immunity and tissue homeostasis.

The lymphatic system aids in osmoregulation through tissue fluid transport, but is also designed to support communication between cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems. During inflammation, changes within the lymphatics can result in an altered response to infection. Neutrophils have been described as one key cell type that facilitates antigen capture and presentation within the lymphatic system, enabling an effective adaptive immune response. Disruption of neutrophil recruitment during inflammation, due to alterations in lymphatics, is a growing area of study due to their key role in infection resolution. In this review, we discuss the currently known methods by which neutrophils are recruited to the lymphatic system and what subsequent effects they have on resident and recruited cells within the lymph vessels and nodes. We also discuss the changes in neutrophil activation and recruitment during chronic inflammatory diseases and their relationship to lymphatic dysfunction.

Neutrophil-lymphatic interactions during acute and chronic disease.

The spatial and temporal Ag distribution determines the subsequent T cell and B cell activation at the distinct anatomical locations in the lymph node (LN). It is well known that LN conduits facilitate small Ag distribution in the LN, but the mechanism of how Ags travel along LN conduits remains poorly understood. In C57BL/6J mice, using FITC as a fluorescent tracer to study lymph distribution in the LN, we found that FITC preferentially colocalized with LN capsule-associated (LNC) conduits. Images generated using a transmission electron microscope showed that LNC conduits are composed of solid collagen fibers and are wrapped with fibroblastic cells. Superresolution images revealed that high-intensity FITC is typically colocalized with elastin fibers inside the LNC conduits. Whereas tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate appears to enter LNC conduits as effectively as FITC, fluorescently-labeled Alexa-555-conjugated OVA labels significantly fewer LNC conduits. Importantly, injection of Alexa-555-conjugated OVA with LPS substantially increases OVA distribution along elastin fibers in LNC conduits, indicating immune stimulation is required for effective OVA traveling along elastin in LN conduits. Finally, elastin fibers preferentially surround lymphatic vessels in the skin and likely guide fluid flow to the lymphatic vessels. Our studies demonstrate that fluid or small molecules are preferentially colocalized with elastin fibers. Although the exact mechanism of how elastin fibers regulate Ag trafficking remains to be explored, our results suggest that elastin can be a potentially new target to direct Ag distribution in the LN during vaccine design.

Elastin Shapes Small Molecule Distribution in Lymph Node Conduits.

Lymphatic vessels remove and transport excess interstitial fluid to lymph nodes (LNs) for fluid balance and immune protection. LNs are typically surrounded by perinodal adipose tissue (PAT). However, PAT is a blood vessel-rich but lymphatic-rare tissue; therefore, how excess fluid in PAT is removed remains unclear. Using C57BL/6 mice, fluorescent dye tracing and transmission electron microscopy results suggest that fluid in PAT can travel to the LN via collagen I channels (PAT-LN conduits), merge into a collagen-rich space between the PAT and LN capsule (PAT-LN sinus), and may enter the LN via the LN capsule-associated conduits. This newly identified route of fluid flow allows fluid to enter the draining LN even when the afferent lymphatic vessels are blocked, indicating that fluid trafficking in PAT-LN conduits is not dependent on functional lymphatic vessels. Similar to lymphatic vessels, PAT-LN conduits can deliver Ags to the LN for immune protection. Additionally,  from intradermal or i.v. infection may use PAT-LN conduits to infect PAT and stimulate PAT immune protection. Our studies revealed a new route of material exchange between PAT and the LN. Ag accumulation and bacterial infection in PAT demonstrate that PAT not only provides energy and regulatory factors, but can also directly participate in immune protection, indicating a new immune function of PAT for host immunity.

Perinodal Adipose Tissue Participates in Immune Protection through a Lymphatic Vessel-Independent Route.

Lymphatic vessels collect and transport lymph and pathogens to the draining lymph node (LN) to generate proper immune protection. A layer of macrophages that strategically line the LN subcapsular sinus (SCS) is directly exposed to the afferent lymph and are denoted as SCS macrophages. These macrophages are the frontline of immune defense that interact with lymph-borne antigens. The importance of these macrophages in limiting the spread of pathogens has been demonstrated in both viral and bacterial infection. In anti-microbial responses, these macrophages can directly or indirectly activate other LN innate immune cells to fight against pathogens, as well as activate T cells or B cells for adaptive immunity. As the first layer of immune cells embracing the tumor-derived antigens, SCS macrophages also actively participate in cancer immune regulation. Recent studies have shown that the LNs' SCS macrophage layer is interrupted in disease models. Despite their importance in fighting the spread of pathogens and in activating anti-tumor immunity, the mechanism and the immunological functional consequences for their disruption are not well-understood. Understanding the mechanism of these macrophages will enhance their capability for therapeutic targeting.

Lymph Node Subcapsular Sinus Macrophages as the Frontline of Lymphatic Immune Defense.

 Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by both acute and chronic phase inflammation of the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract that affect a large and growing number of people worldwide with little to no effective treatments. This is in part due to the lack of understanding of the disease pathogenesis and also the currently poorly described involvement of other systems such as the lymphatics. During DSS induced colitis, mice also develop a severe inflammation of terminal ileum with many features similar to IBD. As well as inflammation within the ileum we have previously demonstrated lymphatic remodeling within the mesentery and mesenteric lymph nodes of DSS-treated mice. The lymphatic remodeling includes lymphangiogenesis, lymphatic vessel dilation and leakiness, as well as cellular infiltration into the surrounding tissue and peripheral draining lymph nodes.  Intestinal inflammation was induced in C57BL/6 mice by administration of 2.5% DSS in drinking water for 7 days. Mice were treated with TLR4 blocker C34 or Polymyxin-B (PMXB) daily from days 3 to 7 of DSS treatment via I.P. injection, and their therapeutic effects on disease activity and lymphatic function were examined. TLR activity and subsequent effect on lymphangiogenesis, lymphadenopathy, and mesenteric lymph node cellular composition were assessed.  DSS Mice treated with TLR4 inhibitor, C34, had a significantly improved disease phenotype characterized by reduced ileal and colonic insult. The change correlated with significant reduction in colonic and mesenteric inflammation, resolved mesenteric lymphangiectasia, and CD103 DC migration similar to that of healthy control. PMXB treatment however did not resolve inflammation within the colon or associated mesenteric lymphatic dysfunction but did however prevent lymphadenopathy within the MLN through alteration of CCL21 gradients and CD103 DC migration.  TLR4 appears to mediate several changes within the mesenteric lymphatics, more specifically it is shown to have different outcomes whether stimulation occurs through pathogen derived factors such as LPS or tissue derived DAMPs, a novel phenomenon.

Mesenteric Lymphatic Alterations Observed During DSS Induced Intestinal Inflammation Are Driven in a TLR4-PAMP/DAMP Discriminative Manner.

Muscle stem cells hold a great therapeutic potential in regenerating damaged muscles. However, the  behavior of muscle stem cells during muscle growth and regeneration is still poorly understood. Using zebrafish as a model, we describe the  dynamics and function of embryonic muscle progenitor cells (MPCs) in the dermomyotome. These cells are located in a superficial layer external to muscle fibers and express many extracellular matrix (ECM) genes, including  (). Utilizing a new  transgenic line, we show that  MPCs display a ramified morphology with dynamic cellular processes. Cell lineage tracing demonstrates that  MPCs contribute to new myofibers in normal muscle growth and also during muscle regeneration. A combination of live imaging and single cell clonal analysis reveals a highly choreographed process of muscle regeneration. Activated  MPCs change from the quiescent ramified morphology to a polarized and elongated morphology, generating daughter cells that fuse with existing myofibers. Partial depletion of  MPCs severely compromises muscle regeneration. Our work provides a dynamic view of embryonic muscle progenitor cells during zebrafish muscle growth and regeneration.

Single cell dynamics of embryonic muscle progenitor cells in zebrafish.

Redundant mechanisms support immunoglobulin A (IgA) responses to intestinal antigens. These include multiple priming sites [mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs), Peyer's patches, and isolated lymphoid follicles] and various cytokines that promote class switch to IgA, even in the absence of T cells. Despite these backup mechanisms, vaccination against enteric pathogens such as rotavirus has limited success in some populations. Genetic and environmental signals experienced during early life are known to influence mucosal immunity, yet the mechanisms for how these exposures operate remain unclear. Here, we used rotavirus infection to follow antigen-specific IgA responses through time and in different gut compartments. Using genetic and pharmacological approaches, we tested the role of the lymphotoxin (LT) pathway-known to support IgA responses-at different developmental stages. We found that LT-β receptor (LTβR) signaling in early life programs intestinal IgA responses in adulthood by affecting antibody class switch recombination to IgA and subsequent generation of IgA antibody-secreting cells within an intact MLN. In addition, early-life LTβR signaling dictates the phenotype and function of MLN stromal cells to support IgA responses in the adult. Collectively, our studies uncover new mechanistic insights into how early-life LTβR signaling affects mucosal immune responses during adulthood.

Shan Liao

University of Calgary

Blocking Lymph Flow by Suturing Afferent Lymphatic Vessels in Mice