Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction of Cannabidiolic Acid from <em>Cannabis</em> Biomass

Industrial hemp (Cannabis spp.) has many compounds of interest with potential medical benefits. Of these compounds, cannabinoids have come to the center ...

Colorado State University-Pueblo

Cabbage (Brassica rapa var. pekinensis) and Wisconsin Fast Plants (Brassica rapa) were chosen for a proof of concept study to determine the potential uptake and accumulation of human pharmaceuticals by plants. These plants were grown hydroponically under high-pressure sodium lamps in one of two groups including a control and test group exposed to pharmaceuticals. The control plants were irrigated with a recirculating Hoagland's nutrient solution while the test plants were irrigated with a Hoagland's nutrient solution fortified with the pharmaceuticals carbamazepine, salbutamol, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim at 232.5 microg L(-1). When plants reached maturity, nine entire plants of each species were separated into components such as roots, leaves, stems, and seedpods where applicable. An analytical method for quantifying pharmaceuticals and personal care products was developed using pressurized liquid extraction and liquid chromatography electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC/ESI/MS) in positive and negative ion modes using single ion monitoring. The method detection limits ranged from 3.13 ng g(-1) to 29.78 ng g(-1) with recoveries ranging from 66.83% to 113.62% from plant matrices. All four of the pharmaceuticals were detected in the roots and leaves of the cabbage. The maximum wet weight concentrations of the pharmaceuticals were detected in the root structure of the cabbage plants at 98.87 ng g(-1) carbamazepine, 114.72 ng g(-1) salbutamol, 138.26 ng g(-1) sulfamethoxazole, and 91.33 ng g(-1) trimethoprim. Carbamazepine and salbutamol were detected in the seedpods of the Wisconsin Fast Plants while all four of the pharmaceuticals were detected in the leaf/stem/root of the Wisconsin Fast Plants. Phloroglucinol staining of root cross-sections was used to verify the existence of an intact endodermis, suggesting that pharmaceuticals found in the leaf and seedpods of the plants were transported symplastically.

Uptake of human pharmaceuticals by plants grown under hydroponic conditions.

Land application of biosolids (treated sewage sludge) can be an important route for introducing xenobiotic compounds into terrestrial environments. There is a paucity of available information on the effects of biosolids amendment on terrestrial organisms. In this study, the influence of biosolids and biosolids aging on earthworm (Eisenia fetida) reproduction and survival and lettuce (Lactuca sativa) seedling emergence was investigated. Earthworms were exposed to soils amended with varying quantities of biosolids (0, 1, 2, 3, or 4% dry mass). To investigate the influence of biosolids aging, the biosolids used in the study were aged for differing lengths of time (2 or 8 weeks) prior to exposure. All of the adult earthworms survived in the biosolids-amended soils at all concentrations that were aged for 2 weeks; however, only 20% of the adults survived in the soil amended with the highest concentration of biosolids and aged for 8 weeks. Reproduction as measured by mean number of juveniles and unhatched cocoons produced per treatment correlated inversely with biosolids concentration, although the effects were generally more pronounced in the 8-week aged biosolids-soil samples. Latent seedling emergence and reduced seedling fitness correlated inversely with biosolids concentration, but these effects were tempered in the 8-week aged versus the 2-week aged soil-biosolids mixtures. Anthropogenic waste indicator compounds (AWIs) were measured in the biosolids, biosolids-soil mixtures, and earthworm samples. Where possible, bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) were calculated or estimated. A wide variety of AWIs were detected in the biosolids (51 AWIs) and earthworm samples (≤19 AWI). The earthworms exposed to the 8-week aged biosolids-soil mixtures tended to accumulate greater quantities of AWIs compared to the 2-week aged mixture, suggesting that the bioavailability of some AWIs was enhanced with aging. The BAFs for a given AWI varied with treatment. Notably large BAFs were determined for some AWIs. For example, the maximum BAF determined for para-cresol, methyl salicylate, bisphenol-A, and cholesterol was greater than 100 in some treatments.

Earthworm bioassays and seedling emergence for monitoring toxicity, aging and bioaccumulation of anthropogenic waste indicator compounds in biosolids-amended soil.

Human pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are routinely found in biosolids from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Once land applied, the PPCPs in biosolids are potentially available for plant uptake and bioaccumulation. This study used a greenhouse model to investigate uptake of PPCPs commonly detected in biosolids by the agricultural plant Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris). Two series of greenhouse experiments were conducted as part of this project. In the first set of experiments, four pharmaceuticals were added to an organic matter-rich soil in environmentally relevant concentrations based on typical biosolids application rates, resulting in final soil concentrations of 2.6 ng g(-1) carbamazepine, 3.1 ng g(-1) sulfamethoxazole, 5.4 ng g(-1) salbutamol, and 0.5 ng g(-1) trimethoprim. In the second set of experiments, the cabbage was grown in soil amended with an agronomic rate of biosolids from a local WWTP. The ambient concentration of PPCPs in the biosolids resulted in final soil concentrations of 93.1 ng g(-1) carbamazepine, 67.4 ng g(-1) sulfamethoxazole, 30.3 ng g(-1) salbutamol, 433.7 ng g(-1) triclosan, and 24.7 ng g(-1) trimethoprim. After growing to maturity, the aerials of the plants were separated from roots and the two tissue types were analyzed separately. All four human pharmaceuticals were detected in both tissues in the cabbage grown in the soil fortified with the four pharmaceuticals with median concentrations of 255.4 ng g(-1) aerials and 272.9 ng g(-1) roots carbamazepine; 222.8 ng g(-1) aerials and 260.3 ng g(-1) roots sulfamethoxazole; 108.3 ng g(-1) aerials and 140.6 ng g(-1) roots salbutamol; and 20.6 ng g(-1) aerials and 53.7 ng g(-1) roots trimethoprim. Although all study compounds were present in the biosolids-amended planting soil, only carbamazepine (317.6 ng g(-1) aerials and 416.2 ng g(-1) roots), salbutamol (21.2 ng g(-1) aerials and 187.6 ng g(-1) roots), and triclosan (22.9 ng g(-1) aerials and 1220.1 ng g(-1) roots) were detected in the aerials of the cabbage. In addition to the study compounds detected in the aerials, sulfamethoxazole was detected in the roots of one of the plants in the biosolid-amended soil. In comparison to many previous studies that have utilized PPCP concentration that exceed environmentally relevant concentrations, plants in this study were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of the PPCPs, yet resulted in uptake concentrations similar to or greater than those reported in comparable studies. We suggest that rhizosphere conditions, particularly the presence of dissolved organic matter in the planting matrix, might be one of the critical factors determining mobilization and bioavailability of xenobiotic compounds such as PPCPs.

Uptake of human pharmaceuticals and personal care products by cabbage (Brassica campestris) from fortified and biosolids-amended soils.

The presence of the antimicrobials triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS)in Fountain Creek, a wastewater-dominated stream, and the Arkansas River, Colorado, USA was measured in the surface water, suspended sediments, and bed sediments during spring runoff (high flow) and summer base flow (low flow) conditions. Fountain Creak is a tributary of the Arkansas River. Passive polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) were used along with active sampling (water grab samples) to measure and TCS concentrations in these surface waters. The concentration of TCC and TCS, based on POCIS measurements, ranged from 4.5 to 47.3 ng/L and 3.9 to 28.3 ng/L, respectively, at the five sample sites monitored in this study under both flow conditions. The range of concentrations of TCC and TCS in suspended sediments was 0.7-57.3 ng/g and 0.7-13.3 ng/g, respectively, and was closely tied to the quantity of organic carbon in the suspended sediment, which ranged from 1.6 to 14.5%. The quantity of organic carbon in suspended sediment during the summer base flow was influenced by runoff from the burn area of a large forest fire that occurred between the two sampling periods. The primary transport mechanism of TCC and TCS in these surface waters was in the dissolved phase, with 64-99% of TCC and 68-99% of TCS transported in the dissolved phase. The total amount of TCS and TCC in bed-sediments was relatively low, with the maximum amount at any one site being 0.38 ± 0.15 ng/g TCS and 4.09 ± 5.26 ng/g TCC. Fountain Creek contributed up to 76% and 69% of the TCC and TCS, respectively, that is transported directly below its confluence with Arkansas River. Fountain Creek drained approximately 3.0 g/day TCS (in spring), 2.9 g/day TCS (in summer) and 1.9 g/day TCC (in spring), 2.0 g/day TCC (in-summer) into the Arkansas River, which suggests consistent input of TCC and TCS into Fountain Creek, such as in discharge of treated wastewater that is independent of changing creek flow conditions.

Presence and transport of the antimicrobials triclocarban and triclosan in a wastewater-dominated stream and freshwater environment.

Removal of triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS) from wastewater is a function of adsorption, abiotic degradation, and microbial mineralization or transformation, reactions that are not currently controlled or optimized in the pollution control infrastructure of standard wastewater treatment. Here, we report on the levels of eight transformation products, human metabolites, and manufacturing byproducts of TCC and TCS in raw and treated sewage sludge. Two sample sets were studied: samples collected once from 14 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) representing nine states, and multiple samples collected from one WWTP monitored for 12 months. Time-course analysis of significant mass fluxes (α=0.01) indicate that transformation of TCC (dechlorination) and TCS (methylation) occurred during sewage conveyance and treatment. Strong linear correlations were found between TCC and the human metabolite 2'-hydroxy-TCC (r=0.84), and between the TCC-dechlorination products dichlorocarbanilide (DCC) and monochlorocarbanilide (r=0.99). Mass ratios of DCC-to-TCC and of methyl-triclosan (MeTCS)-to-TCS, serving as indicators of transformation activity, revealed that transformation was widespread under different treatment regimes across the WWTPs sampled, though the degree of transformation varied significantly among study sites (α=0.01). The analysis of sludge sampled before and after different unit operation steps (i.e., anaerobic digestion, sludge heat treatment, and sludge drying) yielded insights into the extent and location of TCC and TCS transformation. Results showed anaerobic digestion to be important for MeTCS transformation (37-74%), whereas its contribution to partial TCC dechlorination was limited (0.4-2.1%). This longitudinal and nationwide survey is the first to report the occurrence of transformation products, human metabolites, and manufacturing byproducts of TCC and TCS in sewage sludge.

Transformation products and human metabolites of triclocarban and triclosan in sewage sludge across the United States.

Triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS), two of the most commonly used antimicrobial compounds, can be introduced into ecosystems by applying wastewater treatment plant biosolids to agricultural fields. Concentrations of TCC and TCS were measured in different trophic levels within a terrestrial food web encompassing land-applied biosolids, soil, earthworms (Lumbricus), deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), and eggs of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and American kestrels (Falco sparverius) at an experimental site amended with biosolids for the previous 7 years. The samples from this site were compared to the same types of samples from a reference (biosolids-free) agricultural site. Inter-site comparisons showed that concentrations of both antimicrobials were higher on the experimental site in the soil, earthworms, mice (livers), and European starling eggs, but not American kestrel eggs, compared to the control site. Inter-species comparisons on the experimental site indicated significantly higher TCC concentrations in mice (TCC: 12.6-33.3 ng/g) and in starling eggs (TCC: 15.4-31.4 ng/g) than in kestrel eggs (TCC: 3.6 ng/g). Nesting success of kestrels only was significantly lower on the experimental site compared to the reference site due to nest abandonment. This study demonstrates that biosolids-derived TCC and TCS are present throughout the terrestrial food web, including secondary (e.g., starlings) and tertiary (i.e., kestrels) consumers, after repeated, long-term biosolids application.

Occurrence of Triclocarban and Triclosan in an Agro-ecosystem Following Application of Biosolids.

Five parabens used as preservatives in pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were measured in sewage sludges collected at 14 U.S. wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) located in nine states. Detected concentration ranges (ng/g, dry weight) and frequencies were as follows: methyl paraben (15.9 to 203.0; 100%), propyl paraben (0.5 to 7.7; 100%), ethyl paraben (<0.6 to 2.6; 63%), butyl paraben (<0.4 to 4.3; 42%) and benzyl paraben (<0.4 to 3.3; 26%). The estrogenicity inherent to the sum of parabens detected in sewage sludge (ranging from 10.1 to 500.1pg/kg 17β-estradiol equivalents) was insignificant when compared to the 10-times higher value calculated for natural estrogens reported in the literature to occur in sewage sludge. Temporal monitoring at one WWTP provided insights into temporal and seasonal variations in paraben concentrations. This is the first report on the occurrence of five parabens in sewage sludges from across the U.S., and internationally, the first on temporal variations of paraben levels in sewage sludge. Study results will help to inform the risk assessment of sewage sludge destined for land application (biosolids).

Occurrence, temporal variation, and estrogenic burden of five parabens in sewage sludge collected across the United States.

Marijuana, dried and ground Cannabis, is the most consumed illicit drug in the world. Many undesirable and risky effects to human health are caused by its use. The medicinal use or legal recreational use of Cannabis has also been rising in many countries. These facts make traceability methodologies increasingly important whether for forensic use, such as drug trafficking eradication, or for quality control purposes of legal medicinal Cannabis. Consequently, the objective of this study was to analyze Cannabis by means of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) in order to assess the capability of this technique to trace the geographical origin of Cannabis cultivated in Colorado, United States of America. TGA appears to be sensitive enough to detect the degradation/decarboxylation of cannabinoids and terpenes, at least to some extent; also, the degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin was indicated. Overall, the temperature ranges we analyzed using linear discriminant analysis showed high accuracies, with the 200 to 300 °C and 600 to 700 °C ranges achieving 100% accuracy.

Sourcing Cannabis sativa L. by thermogravimetric analysis.

Cannabinoids are increasingly becoming compounds of medical interest. However, cannabis plants only produce carboxylated cannabinoids. In order to access the purported medical benefits of these compounds, the carboxylic acid moiety must be removed. This process is typically performed by heating the plant material or extract; however, cannabinoids being thermolabile can readily degrade, evaporate, or convert to undesired metabolites. Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) operates using a pseudo-closed system under pressure and temperature. While pressure is maintained at 11 MPa, temperature can be varied from ambient to 200 °C.

Chad A. Kinney

Department of Chemistry,
Institute for Cannabis Research

Colorado State University-Pueblo

Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction of Cannabidiolic Acid from Cannabis Biomass

Chad A. Kinney

.css-o250i3{font-size:18px;font-family:Open Sans,sans-serif;line-height:21.6px;}Department of Chemistry,Institute for Cannabis Research

Colorado State University-Pueblo

Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction of Cannabidiolic Acid from Cannabis Biomass

Department of Chemistry,
Institute for Cannabis Research