The human heart is a hollow cone-shaped muscle that comprises three layers. The outermost layer is the epicardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and ...

The vascular system is a circulatory network of arteries and veins essential for maintaining homeostasis. The arteries carry oxygenated blood from the ...

The cardiac cycle occurs during a complete heartbeat and consists of three phases: diastole, atrial systole, and ventricular systole. The cardiac cycle ...

The cardiac conduction system initiates and transmits electrical impulses that trigger myocardial contraction, ensuring efficient heart function. The ...

A cardiac action potential involves a series of electrical changes across the heart cell membrane, leading to contraction and relaxation. Nodal cells and ...

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pushed by one ventricle per minute. It is measured in liters per minute and calculated by multiplying the heart rate ...

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pushed by one ventricle per minute. A key component of cardiac output is stroke volume, the blood volume pushed from ...

The regulation of the cardiovascular system is essential for maintaining homeostasis. This process involves the autonomic nervous system, baroreceptors, ...

Cardiovascular assessment involves gathering subjective data covering the following elements. First, ask the patient to verbalize about past medical and ...

Inspection is the first step in assessing the cardiovascular system, providing vital information about circulatory and cardiac health. Begin by placing ...

Palpation in cardiovascular examination assesses jugular pressure, maximal impulse, pulses, capillary refill, and edema. First, place the patient in a ...

Cardiac auscultation involves listening to heart sounds using a stethoscope. The normal heart sounds are S1 and S2 and are heard using the ...

Abnormal findings during the inspection and palpation of a cardiovascular examination include the following: First, examine for signs of distress, such as ...

Abnormal heart sounds such as S3 and S4 gallops, opening snaps, systolic clicks, and murmurs occur due to structural or functional issues during systole ...