This research was funded by Washington College's Provost's Office, Middendorf Fund, Hodson Trust, and Franklin and Marshall's Hackman Fund and College of Grants. We thank E. Counihan, S. Giordano, F. Rauh, and A. Roth for assistance in the field. We thank M. Conner, R. Fleegle, and D. Startt at Chesapeake Farms, and Chino Farms for permission and access. The Washington College GIS Program helped with the preparation of maps.

All procedures involving animal subjects were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees of Franklin and Marshall and Washington Colleges and followed all local, state, and federal regulations.
1. Capture and Handling
<ol>
	<li>Place hoop traps in the target body of water that is known to contain turtles. Identify water depth ensuring that 4 - 5 inches of the trap remains above water to allow trapped turtles to surface and breathe. Be certain to expand and secure hoop traps to their maximum len...

<ol>
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F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+inherited+magnetic+map+guides+ocean+navigation+in+juvenile+Pacific+salmon.">An inherited magnetic map guides ocean navigation in juvenile Pacific salmon.</a> Curr. Biol. 24, 446-450 (2014).</li><li>Lohmann, K. J., Putman, N. F., Lohmann, C. M. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Geomagnetic+imprinting:+a+unifying+hypothesis+of+natal+homing+in+salmon+and+sea+turtles.">Geomagnetic imprinting: a unifying hypothesis of natal homing in salmon and sea turtles.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA. 105, 19096-19101 (2008).</li><li>Fuxjager, M. J., Davidoff, K. R., Mangiamele, L. A., Lohmann, K. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The protocol presented here allows the experimenter to document and quantify the role of cognition in navigation. Manipulating cognition in the field has proven difficult, as most approaches leave experimenters unable to know which specific aspects of the animal&#39;s behavior are being manipulated. However, the protocol presented here allows the experimenter to accurately manipulate and thus assess the role of cognition in navigation. The technique further allows experimenters to monitor animal navigation in real-time w...

Cognition (herein defined as &#34;all processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using information from the environment&#34; 1) is central to an array of complex navigation tasks2. For example, Sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) show a marked improvement in migratory precision with experience3, and sea turtle species imprint on their natal beaches as hatchlings and return as adults4-6. Similarly, successful migration, dispersal, and foraging hinge on an animal&#39;s ability to gather information about their spatial environment7,8. Some animals appear to learn navigational routes in relation to specific landscape features9 and may use spatial cognition when moving between nesting and foraging areas10. Recent work on Eastern Painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) suggests a critical period in navigation, where successful navigation of upland habitat as adults hinges on juvenile experience within a narrow age range (&#60; 4 years old11-13). Though together these studies demonstrate the progress that has been made in understanding the role of learning in navigation4-6, 14-16, the mechanisms that underlie such behaviors and the full role of cognition in navigation remain enigmatic, especially in vertebrates8, 17, 18.
Field investigations into the role of cognition in navigation are rare2, 8, 18, due largely to the methodological difficulties involved in monitoring, manipulating, and tracking wild animals. For example, the large spatial and temporal scales on which many animals navigate often preclude investigating both type of information that those animals potentially learn and how that information is acquired. Experimenters often face the logistical difficulties of detecting and locating animals when monitoring behavior over such large areas and time frames, thereby limiting the type of data that can be collected and the conclusions that can be drawn. Although the use of animal-mounted global positioning system (GPS) recorders may improve the probability of detection of widely ranging animals, spatial data collected by these means are generally of very coarse resolution and lack a detailed behavioral component. Consequently, the data that can be collected under such circumstances are of limited value for examining subtle variation in behavior among different groups or experimental treatments. Similarly, the direct, controlled manipulation of target behaviors is often prohibited by the spatial and temporal scales typical of navigation behaviors, as well as by inherent logistical constraints of field studies. Finding animals in their natural habitat, catching and manipulating them, and then collecting behavioral data without inadvertently producing spurious behaviors are major challenges of working with animals in the field. Therefore, the design of experiments on free-ranging animals is often constrained and the ability to conduct rigorous, controlled field experiments on the role of cognition in navigation is limited.
The present study circumvents many of the previous difficulties of investigating the relationship between cognition and navigation in the field by using a novel combination of pharmacological manipulation and high-resolution tracking of freely navigating animals under field conditions. Scopolamine, a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) antagonist, has been shown to block spatial memory formation and recall by blocking cholinergic activity in the brains of a variety of vertebrate taxa18-24. Scopolamine can be used effectively on free-ranging animals under field conditions11, 18 and has a marked but temporary effect (e.g., 6 - 8 hr in reptiles). Methylscopolamine, a mAChR antagonist that does not cross the blood-brain-barrier19-21, can be used to control for the possible peripheral effects of scopolamine and for non-cognitive aspects of behavior11. Pharmacology allows for the precise manipulation of cognition by directly affecting receptors, and high-precision radio telemetry allows for the observation of the resulting effects on behavior. Measurements taken via remote triangulation with both high spatial (&#177; 2.5 m) and temporal (15 min) resolution allow for the precise documentation and quantification of animal behavior relative to the experimental manipulation of cognition.
This study11 was conducted between May and August 2013 and 2014 at Chesapeake Farms, a 3,300 acre wildlife management and agriculture research area in Kent Co., MD, USA (39.194&#176;N, 76.187&#176;W). The protocol involves five main steps: (1) capturing and handling animals (2) affixing radio transmitters (3) preparing the pharmacological agents (4) monitoring and manipulating animal movements, and (5) analyzing spatial data. The study described herein focused on the Eastern painted turtle (Chrysemys picta). Turtles in the focal population engage in annual overland movements in which they leave their home ponds and navigate to alternative aquatic habitats using one of four very precise (&#177; 3.5 m), complex, and highly predictable routes11, 12. Pharmacological manipulation of animals in this system paired with high-resolution radio telemetry sheds light on the role of cognition in freely navigating wild animals.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="595">
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		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;">Scopolamine bromide</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S0929</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">USP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;">Scopolamine methylbromide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S8502, 1421009</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">USP and non USP versions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;">Saline</td>
			<td>Hanna Pharmaceutical Supply Co., Inc.</td>
			<td>409488850</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">USP, formulated as an injectable&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">Syringe filter</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>09-720-004</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">Syringe</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14-823-30</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">Hypodermic needle</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14-823-13</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;">Antenna</td>
			<td>Wildlife Materials</td>
			<td>3 Element Folding Yagi</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Antennae with additional elements are available, but can be cumbersome in the field.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;">Radio Receiver</td>
			<td>Wildlife Materials</td>
			<td>TRX-2000S</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Water resistant models are also available.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">Compass</td>
			<td>Brunton&#160;</td>
			<td>Truarc 15</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="169">
			<td height="169" style="height:169px;">Radio transmitters</td>
			<td>Holohil Inc.</td>
			<td>BD-2, PD-2, RI-2B</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Transmitter models vary in lifespan and signal output as a function of battery size and pulse rate settings, which can be customized based on the study question and organism.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;">GPS</td>
			<td>Garmin</td>
			<td>eTrex Venture</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;">Coaxial cable</td>
			<td>newegg.com</td>
			<td>C2G 40026</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">BNC connections are necessary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;">Hoop net</td>
			<td>Memphis Net and Twine&#160;</td>
			<td>TN325</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Net mesh size should be chosen based on the minimum size of the target animal.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using pharmacological manipulation and high-precision radio telemetry to study the spatial cognition in free-ranging animals

An animal&#39;s ability to perceive and learn about its environment plays a key role in many behavioral processes, including navigation, migration, dispersal and foraging. However, the understanding of the role of cognition in the development of navigation strategies and the mechanisms underlying these strategies is limited by the methodological difficulties involved in monitoring, manipulating the cognition of, and tracking wild animals. This study describes a protocol for addressing the role of cognition in navigation that combines pharmacological manipulation of behavior with high-precision radio telemetry. The approach uses scopolamine, a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, to manipulate cognitive spatial abilities. Treated animals are then monitored with high frequency and high spatial resolution via remote triangulation. This protocol was applied within a population of Eastern painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) that has inhabited seasonally ephemeral water sources for ~100 years, moving between far-off sources using precise (&#177; 3.5 m), complex (i.e., non-linear with high tortuosity that traverse multiple habitats), and predictable routes learned before 4 years of age. This study showed that the processes used by these turtles are consistent with spatial memory formation and recall. Together, these results are consistent with a role of spatial cognition in complex navigation and highlight the integration of ecological and pharmacological techniques in the study of cognition and navigation.

Using the above protocol, the role of cognition in navigation was assessed in a population of Eastern painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) that has experienced seasonal ephemeral water sources for ~100 years. This population inhabits a mix of ephemeral (drained annually and rapidly - in several hr) and permanent aquatic habitats (Figure 1). Previous studies suggest that after their ponds are drained, resident turtles navigate to alternative water sources with high p...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using Pharmacological Manipulation and High-precision Radio Telemetry to Study the Spatial Cognition in Free-ranging Animals at JoVE.com

Using Pharmacological Manipulation and High-precision Radio Telemetry to Study the Spatial Cognition in Free-ranging Animals

This paper describes a novel protocol that combines the pharmacological manipulation of memory and radio telemetry to document and quantify the role of cognition in navigation.

An animal&#39;s ability to perceive and learn about its environment plays a key role in many behavioral processes, including navigation, migration, ...

The overall goal of this experiment is to determine the importance of spatial cognition in over land turtle navigation. This method can help answer key questions in ecology, including how animals respond to changes in their environment or navigate stressful landscapes and give us insight into the underlying cognitive and neurological processes. The main advantages of this technique are that animal movements are studied in a natural system with high spatial precision and behavior is manipulated using well studied pharmacological agents.Though this method can provide insight into the cognitive basis of animal movements, it can also be applied to other systems, such as conservation and neurobiology. To begin, locate a target body of water that is known to contain turtles. Identify a region within the site that has sufficient water depth to place traps.Deploy the hoop traps so that four to five inches will remain above water in order to give trapped turtles space to surface and breathe. Expand the traps to their maximum length. Stake the traps into place securely.Next, bait the traps with dead fish, chicken livers or necks, and a can of cat food or canned vegetables. Check the traps twice daily. Remove the turtles by holding the animal on the sides, avoiding contact with the claws or beak, which can cause injury.Place the turtle in a holding bag, attached to a spring scale and record the mass of the animal to the nearest gram. To affix the transmitter, first use a spatula and cloth to clear mud, debris, and algae from the attachment area. Swab this area, using 70%isopropanol.Use a small amount of five minute epoxy to attach the transmitter to the turtle carapace orienting it to ensure the transmitter has maximum contact with the shell. Position the antenna so that it trails behind the animal, parallel to the long axis of the body. Finally, cover the entire transmitter and approximately one centimeter of the surrounding carapace with five minute epoxy.After the epoxy is cured, usually overnight, return the turtle to the point of capture. To prepare the drug stocks, use an analytical balance in a fume hood to weigh enough scopolamine hydrobromide to make a one milligram per milliliter solution. Add the scopolamine to a conical tube containing the appropriate volume of injection saline.Vortex until dissolved. Next, weigh enough scopolamine methylbromide to make a one milligram per milliliter working solution. Add this to a conical tube containing the appropriate volume of injection saline.Vortex the solution until all powder is dissolved. Using a 0.22 micrometer pour syringe filter, transfer the scopolamine hydrobromide solution into a sterile sealed serum vial. Repeat the filtration process using a new syringe to filter the scopolamine methylbromide solution.Dial in the frequency of the target animal into the receiver. Using a Yagi antenna, and with the receiver gain set to medium, identify the general location of a tagged animal. Move to the general location of the target turtle, remaining at least 25 meters away.Using a GPS device, record the location. Identify the direction of the strongest signal. Turn the gain down as far as possible, while still receiving a detectable signal.Move the antenna to the left and record the bearing at which the signal is lost. This is the left knoll. Then repeat this process to determine the right knoll.These two knolls represent a single set of bearings. Next, move to a different location, ideally 60 to 90 degrees relative to the first bearing, if possible, and take the left and right knoll bearings again. A GPS location needs to be taken each time the tracker changes its position.Repeat this at different locations for a total of at least three, and up to five, bearing sets to increase the accuracy. Repeat the location collection every 10 to 15 minutes and record the bearing sets for the target animal. This will give movement data for the unmanipulated animals.Continue until the animal has navigated approximately half of its projected path. Then, proceed to the location of the animal and carefully recapture it. Using the mass collected previously, determine the correct dose of drug to administer for the specific animal collected.Swab the injection site with a 70%alcohol wipe. Using a one milliliter syringe with a 22 gauge needle, deliver the drug directly into the caudle peritoneal sinus. Release the animal as soon as possible at its site of capture.Track the movement of the animal using left and right knoll method until it reaches the projected destination. Using each pair of left and right knoll bearings, bisect the angle to find the resultant transmitter bearing. Repeat this for all bearings for a given time point, and triangulate to find the position of the animal at that time.This map shows the tracked movements of experienced adult turtles between temporary and permanent ponds. Despite maintaining high precision along traditional routes prior to injection, all adults in the test group deviated dramatically after receiving scopolamine treatment. This phenomenon was not seen in individuals treated with the control drug, methylscopolamine.Conversely, mapping of naive juveniles showed that even with scopolamine treatment, individuals maintained movement within traditional routes. This suggested that juvenile individuals with no previous experience at the site use local cues to navigate, whereas scopolamine treated adults use spatial memory to navigate, as they lost this ability when treated with scopolamine. This plot shows the movement of sample turtles prior to treatment.All treatment groups are seen to follow the traditional path with a high degree of accuracy. After treatment, adults in the scopolamine treatment group deviated significantly from the traditional path. All other groups continued to navigate with high precision.Once mastered, each set of bearings can be collected in no more than three minutes if tracking is performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember to choose locations that are close enough to collect accurate data, but not too close to disturb the animal. After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the field of ecology and animal behavior to explore the neurological basis of cognition under natural conditions.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Environment

6.7K Görüntüleme.  Franklin and Marshall College. The overall goal of this experiment is to determine the importance of spatial cognition in over land turtle navigation. This method can help answer key questions in ecology, including how animals respond to changes in their environment or navigate stressful landscapes and give us insight into the underlying cognitive and neurological processes. The main advantages of this technique are that animal movements are studied in a natural system with high spatial precision and behavior is manipulate...