Name: a high-performance compact photoacoustic tomography system for in vivo small-animal brain imaging
Uploaded: 2017-06-21T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A High-performance Compact Photoacoustic Tomography System for In Vivo Small-animal Brain Imaging at JoVE.com

The research is supported by the Tier 2 grant funded by the Ministry of Education in Singapore (ARC2/15: M4020238) and the Singapore Ministry of Health's National Medical Research Council (NMRC/OFIRG/0005/2016: M4062012). The authors would like to thank Mr. Chow Wai Hoong Bobby for the machine shop help.

All animal experiments were performed according to the guidelines and regulations approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Nanyang Technological University, Singapore (Animal Protocol Number ARF-SBS/NIE-A0263).
1. System Description
<ol>
	<li>Mount the PLD inside the circular scanner, as shown in Figure 1a. Connect the PLD to the laser driver unit (LDU). 
	NOTE: The PLD provides ~136-ns pulses at a wavelength of ~803 nm, with a maximum...

<ol>
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This work presents a protocol for performing in vivo brain imaging on rats using a PLD-PAT system. The protocol includes a detailed description of the imaging system and its alignment, as well as an illustration of brain imaging on rats. The existing OPO-based PAT systems are expensive and bulky and can provide one cross-sectional image in 5-10 min. The PLD-PAT system is compact, portable, and low-cost and can provide good-quality images in 3 s. The performance of the system was previously studied in phantoms an...

Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is a hybrid imaging modality that has many applications in both clinical and preclinical studies1,2,3,4,5. In PAT, nanosecond laser pulses irradiate biological tissue. The absorption of incident light by the tissue chromophores leads to a local temperature rise, which then yields pressure waves emitted in the form of sound waves. An ultrasound detector collects the photoacoustic signals at various positions around the sample. The photoacoustic (PA) signals are reconstructed using various algorithms (such as a delay-and-sum algorithm)6 to generate the photoacoustic image.
This hybrid imaging modality offers high-resolution, deep-tissue imaging and high optical absorption contrast7,8. Recently, a ~12-cm imaging depth9 was achieved in chicken breast tissue with the aid of a longer wavelength (~1,064 nm) and an exogenous contrast agent calledphosphorus phthalocyanine. This depth sensitivity is much higher than the depth sensitivity of other optical methods, such as confocal fluorescence microscopy, two-photon fluorescence microscopy,10 optical coherence tomography, 11etc. Using more than one wavelength, PAT can demonstrate structural and functional changes in organs. For many human diseases, small-animal models have been well-established12,13,14,15. For the imaging of small animals, several modalities have been demonstrated. Out of all those approaches, PA imaging has gained attention rather quickly due to the advantages mentioned above. PAT has shown its potential for imaging blood vessels in the tissues and organs (i.e., heart, lungs, liver, eyes, spleen, brain, skin, spinal cord, kidney, etc.) of small animals4,16,17,18. PAT is a well-established modality for small-animal brain imaging. PA waves are produced due to the light absorption by the chromophores, so multiple-wavelength PAT allows for the mapping of total hemoglobin concentration (HbT) and oxygen saturation (SO2)19,20,21,22. Brain neurovascular imaging was achieved with the aid of exogenous contrast agents12,23,24. PA modality can help to give a better understanding of brain health by providing information at the molecular and genetic levels.
For small-animal imaging, Nd : YAG/OPO lasers are widely used as PAT excitation sources. These lasers deliver ~5 ns near-infrared pulses with energy (~100 mJ at the OPO output window) at a ~10-Hz repetition rate25. The PA system equipped with such lasers is costly and bulky and allows for low-speed imaging with single-element ultrasound transducers (UST) due to the low repetition rate of the laser source. A typical A-line acquisition time in such PA systems is ~5 min per cross-section25. An imaging system with such a lengthy measurement time is not ideal for small-animal imaging, because it is difficult to control the physiological parameters for full-body imaging, time-resolved functional imaging, etc. By adopting multiple single-element USTs, array-based USTs, or a high-repetition-rate laser, it is possible to increase the imaging speed of PA systems. Using only one single-element UST to collect all PA signals around the sample will limit the imaging speed of the system. Multiple single-element USTs arranged in circular or semi-circular geometry are demonstrated for high-speed, highly sensitive imaging techniques. Array-based USTs26, such as linear, semi-circular, circular, and volumetric arrays, have been successfully used for real-time imaging1. These array-based USTs will increase the imaging speed and reduce the measurement sensitivity, but they are expensive. However, the imaging speed of PA systems that use array-based USTs is still limited by the repetition rate of the laser.
Pulsed-laser technology advanced to make high-repetition-rate pulsed-laser diodes (PLDs). 7,000 frames/s B-scan photoacoustic imaging was demonstrated with PLDs using a clinical ultrasound platform27. Such PLDs can improve the imaging speed of the PAT system, even with single-element UST circular scanning geometry. Single-element USTs are less expensive and highly sensitive, unlike array-based USTs. Over the last decade, little research was reported on the use of high-repetition-rate PLDs as the excitation source for PA imaging. A fiber-based near-infrared PLD was demonstrated for PA imaging of phantoms28. The in vivo imaging of blood vessels at a ~1 mm depth below the human skin was demonstrated using low-energy PLDs29. A PLD-based optical resolution photoacoustic microscope (ORPAM) was reported. Using PLDs, ~1.5 cm deep imaging at a frame rate of 0.43 Hz was demonstrated30. Very recently, a PLD-PAT system was reported that provided images in as short as ~3 s and at a ~2 cm imaging depth in biological tissue25,31. This study proved that such a low-cost, compact system can provide high-quality images, even at high speeds. The PLD-PAT system can be used for high-frame-rate (7,000 fps) photoacoustic imaging, surficial blood vessel imaging, finger joint imaging, 2 cm-deep tissue imaging, small-animal brain imaging, etc. The single-wavelength and low-pulse-energy pulses from PLD limit its application to multi-spectral and deep-tissue imaging. Experiments have been carried out on small animals using the same PLD-PAT system used for pre-clinical applications. The purpose of this work is to provide the visualized experimental demonstration of the PLD-PAT system for in vivo 2D cross-sectional brain imaging of small animals.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1212">
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	<tbody>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:243px;">Pulsed laser diode</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Quantel, France</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">QD-Q1910-SA-TEC</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">It is the excitation laser source with specifications 803 nm, 1.4mJ per pulse, 136 ns pulse, 7kHz maximum, dimentions : 11.0 x 6.0 x 3.6 cm, weight: ~150 gm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Stepper motor with gearbox</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">LIN Engineering (Servo Dynamics)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Motor: CO-5718-01P, Gearbox: DPL64/1, I = 10 for NEMA 23; power supply PW100-48</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">To move the detector holder in a circular geometry. Torque: 2.08 N-m, Rotor inertia: 2.6 kg-cm2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Ultrasonic pulser/receiver</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>5072PR</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">To receive, filter and ampligy the PA signal from UST. Its bandwidth is 35MHz, and gain is &#177;59 dB.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Ultrasound Transducer</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>V306-SU-NK-CF1.9IN/Q4200069</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">Ultrasonic sensors used for photoacoustic detection. Central freqency 2.25 MHz, 0.5 in, Cylindrical focus 1.9 inch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">PCIe DAQ (Data acquisition) Card</td>
			<td>GaGe</td>
			<td>CSE4227/ A6000610/B0E00610</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">12 bit, 100 Ms/s, 2 channels, 1 Gs on board memory, PCIe x16 interface</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Rats</td>
			<td>In Vivos Pte Ltd, Singapore</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">NTac:SD, Sprague Dawley / SD</td>
			<td>Female, weight 100&#177;10g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:243px;">Acrylic water tank </td>
			<td style="width:195px;">NTU workshop</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Custom-made</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">It contains the water that acts as an acoustic coupling medium between brain and detector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Circular Scanner </td>
			<td style="width:195px;">NTU workshop</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Custom-made</td>
			<td>Scanner is made out of Alluminum </td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:243px;">Anesthetic Machine</td>
			<td>medical plus pte ltd</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Non-Rebreathing Anaesthesia machine with oxygen concentrator.</td>
			<td>Supplies oxygen and isoflurane to animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Pulse Oxymeter portable</td>
			<td>Medtronic</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">PM10N with veterinary sensor</td>
			<td>Monitors the pulse oxymetry of the animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Ultrasound gel</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Progress/parker acquasonic gel</td>
			<td>PA-GEL-CLEA-5000</td>
			<td>Clear ultrasound gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:243px;">Data acqusison software</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">National Instruments Corporation,Austin,TX,USA)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">NI LabVIEW 2015 SP1</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">LabVIEW based program was developed in our laboratory for controlling the stepper motor and acquring the PA singnals from the detector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:243px;">Data processing software</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Matlab (Mathworks, Natick, MA, USA)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Matlab R2012b</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">Matlab code for reconstruction of PA images was developed in our lab</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Temperature controller </td>
			<td>LaridTech, MO,USA</td>
			<td>MTTC1410</td>
			<td>It will constantly control temperature of the PLD </td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">12 V power supply </td>
			<td>Voltcraft </td>
			<td style="width:327px;">PPS-11810</td>
			<td>To supply operating voltage for PLD</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Variable power supply </td>
			<td>BASETech</td>
			<td>BT-153</td>
			<td>To change the laser output power</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:243px;">Funtion generator </td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Funktionsgenerator</td>
			<td>FG250D</td>
			<td style="width:449px;">To change the repetetion rate of the PLD. It will provide TTL signal to synchronize the DAQ with the laser excitation.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Animal distributor</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">In Vivos Pte Ltd, Singapore</td>
			<td style="width:327px;"></td>
			<td>Animal distributor that supplies small animals for research purpose.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Animal holder</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">NTU workshop</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Custom-made</td>
			<td>Used for holding the animal on its abdomen</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Breathing mask</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">NTU workshop</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Custom-made</td>
			<td>Used along with animal holder to supply anesthesia mixture to the animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Pentobarbital sodium</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Valabarb</td>
			<td style="width:327px;"></td>
			<td>Used for euthanizing the animal after the expeirment.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Optical diffuser</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">DG10-1500</td>
			<td>Used to to make the laser beam homogeneous</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a high-performance compact photoacoustic tomography system for in vivo small-animal brain imaging

In vivo small-animal imaging has an important role to play in preclinical studies. Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is an emerging hybrid imaging modality that shows great potential for both preclinical and clinical applications. Conventional optical parametric oscillator-based PAT (OPO-PAT) systems are bulky and expensive and cannot provide high-speed imaging. Recently, pulsed-laser diodes (PLDs) have been successfully demonstrated as an alternative excitation source for PAT. Pulsed-laser diode PAT (PLD-PAT) has been successfully demonstrated for high-speed imaging on photoacoustic phantoms and biological tissues. This work provides a visualized experimental protocol for in vivo brain imaging using PLD-PAT. The protocol includes the compact PLD-PAT system configuration and its description, animal preparation for brain imaging, and a typical experimental procedure for 2D cross-sectional rat brain imaging. The PLD-PAT system is compact and cost-effective and can provide high-speed, high-quality imaging. Brain images collected in vivo at various scan speeds are presented.

The in vivo brain imaging results that demonstrate the capabilities of the described PLD-PAT system are showcased in this section. To demonstrate the high-speed imaging capabilities of the PLD-PAT system, the in vivo brain imaging of two different healthy rats was performed. Figure 2 shows the brain images of a female rat (93 g) at various scan speeds. Figure 2a and b show the photographs of the rat brain before...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A High-performance Compact Photoacoustic Tomography System for In Vivo Small-animal Brain Imaging at JoVE.com

A High-performance Compact Photoacoustic Tomography System for In Vivo Small-animal Brain Imaging

A compact pulsed-laser diode-based photoacoustic tomography (PLD-PAT) system for high-speed in vivo brain imaging in small animals is demonstrated.

A High-performance Compact Photoacoustic Tomography System for In Vivo Small-animal Brain Imaging

In vivo small-animal imaging has an important role to play in preclinical studies. Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is an emerging hybrid imaging modality ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to demonstrate the performance of a low-cost, compact photoacoustic system for in vivo brain imaging of small animals. Photoacoustic tomography or PAT is a hybrid imaging modality combining light and sound. PAT offers in vivo deep tissue imaging of organ to organelles with very high optical contrast.This work presents a compact, high speed pulsar laser diode based photoacoustic tomography system for in vivo cross-sectional brain imaging in rats. Demonstrating the procedure will be Dr.Paul Kumar Upputuri, a research fellow, Sandeep Kumar Kalva, a PhD student, and Vijitha Periyasamy, a project officer from our lab. To begin the system preparation, turn on the pulsed-laser diode mounted in the circular scanner assembly.Use the laser driver unit to set the repetition rate to 7, 000 Hertz. Set the laser power supply to 3.1 volts to achieve the pulse energy of 1.42 millijoules. Then connect a focused ultrasonic emersion transducer to a pulser-receiver unit.Mount the transducer in its holder under the circular scanning plate, with the transducer oriented towards the center of the plate. Place the scanning assembly in an acrylic tank, with a polyethylene imaging window in the bottom of the tank. Add water to the tank until the transducer is fully immersed.Verify that the photoacoustic signal is being detected by the pulser-receiver unit before proceeding to imaging. To begin the imaging procedure, obtain a healthy female rat. Following anesthesia, trim the fur on the scalp with a hair clipper.Gently apply depilatory cream to the trimmed area. After four to five minutes, remove the cream with a cotton swab. Apply sterile ocular ointment to the rat's eyes to prevent dryness and to block scattered laser beams.Fix a custom made imaging bed equipped with a breathing mask on a lab jack with surgical tape. Place the animal in a prone position on the imaging bed, with its nose and mouth in the mask. Secure the animal in the imaging bed with surgical tape.Position the imaging bed assembly on the optical table. Connect the breathing mask to an anesthesia machine, and begin delivering the inhaled anesthetic. Affix a pulse oximeter to the animal's tail or hind paw to monitor its physiological condition throughout the procedure.Apply a colorless ultrasound gel to the scalp of the animal. Ensure that the imaging bed assembly is securely positioned under the scanner, with the animal's scalp centered under the imaging window. Carefully raise the imaging bed until the ultrasound gel contacts the imaging window, taking care to minimize the pressure against the animal's head.Acquire test images and adjust the vertical position of the bed until the imaging cross-sectional plane of the brain is at the focus point of the ultrasonic transducer. Then, set the parameters for the experiment and start the scan. Monitor the animal during the imaging period.Use reconstruction software to obtain the cross-sectional brain image. Once imaging is complete, discontinue anesthesia and allow the animal to recover fully under observation. cross-sectional images of a healthy female rat brain were obtained with non-invasive PLD PAT imaging.Scan times ranged from five to 20 seconds. The transverse sinus, superior sagittal sinus, and cerebral veins were visible at all tested scan speeds. The same performance was observed when the procedure was repeated with a second healthy female rat.This compact photoacoustic system is used to acquire photoacousitc images of brain vasculature. The results promise that the system can provide high quality individual brain images in scanning time as low as five seconds. Future applications of the developed PAT system include brain tumor imaging, imaging organs in small animal, contrasts flowing in and out of the body, and other therapeutic applications.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Three-dimensional Optical-resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As the mainstays of in vivo three-dimensional (3-D) optical microscopy, single-/multi-photon fluorescence microscopy and optical coherence tomography (OCT) have demonstrated their extraordinary sensitivities to fluorescence and optical scattering contrasts, respectively. However, the optical absorption contrast of biological tissues, which encodes essential physiological/pathological information, has not yet been assessable. 
The emergence of biomedical photoacoustics has led to a new branch of optical microscopy optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM)1, where the optical irradiation is focused to the diffraction limit to achieve cellular1 or even subcellular2 level lateral resolution. As a valuable complement to existing optical microscopy technologies, OR-PAM brings in at least two novelties. First and most importantly, OR-PAM detects optical absorption contrasts with extraordinary sensitivity (i.e., 100%). Combining OR-PAM with fluorescence microscopy3 or with optical-scattering-based OCT4 (or with both) provides comprehensive optical properties of biological tissues. Second, OR-PAM encodes optical absorption into acoustic waves, in contrast to the pure optical processes in fluorescence microscopy and OCT, and provides background-free detection. The acoustic detection in OR-PAM mitigates the impacts of optical scattering on signal degradation and naturally eliminates possible interferences (i.e., crosstalks) between excitation and detection, which is a common problem in fluorescence microscopy due to the overlap between the excitation and fluorescence spectra. 
Unique for optical absorption imaging, OR-PAM has demonstrated broad biomedical applications since its invention, including, but not limited to, neurology5, 6, ophthalmology7, 8, vascular biology9, and dermatology10. In this video, we teach the system configuration and alignment of OR-PAM as well as the experimental procedures for in vivo functional microvascular imaging.

Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) is an emerging technology capable of imaging optical absorption contrasts in vivo with cellular resolution and sensitivity. Here, we provide a visualized instruction on the experimental protocols of OR-PAM, including system configuration, system alignment, typical in vivo experimental procedures, and functional imaging schemes.

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As ...

Viral Nanoparticles for In vivo Tumor Imaging

The use of nanomaterials has the potential to revolutionize materials science and medicine. Currently, a number of different nanoparticles are being investigated for applications in imaging and therapy. Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) derived from plants can be regarded as self-assembled bionanomaterials with defined sizes and shapes. Plant viruses under investigation in the Steinmetz lab include icosahedral particles formed by Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) and Brome mosaic virus (BMV), both of which are 30 nm in diameter. We are also developing rod-shaped and filamentous structures derived from the following plant viruses: Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), which forms rigid rods with dimensions of 300 nm by 18 nm, and Potato virus X (PVX), which form filamentous particles 515 nm in length and 13 nm in width (the reader is referred to refs. 1 and 2 for further information on VNPs).
From a materials scientist's point of view, VNPs are attractive building blocks for several reasons: the particles are monodisperse, can be produced with ease on large scale in planta, are exceptionally stable, and biocompatible. Also, VNPs are "programmable" units, which can be specifically engineered using genetic modification or chemical bioconjugation methods 3. The structure of VNPs is known to atomic resolution, and modifications can be carried out with spatial precision at the atomic level4, a level of control that cannot be achieved using synthetic nanomaterials with current state-of-the-art technologies.
In this paper, we describe the propagation of CPMV, PVX, TMV, and BMV in Vigna ungiuculata and Nicotiana benthamiana plants. Extraction and purification protocols for each VNP are given. Methods for characterization of purified and chemically-labeled VNPs are described. In this study, we focus on chemical labeling of VNPs with fluorophores (e.g. Alexa Fluor 647) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). The dyes facilitate tracking and detection of the VNPs 5-10, and PEG reduces immunogenicity of the proteinaceous nanoparticles while enhancing their pharmacokinetics 8,11. We demonstrate tumor homing of PEGylated VNPs using a mouse xenograft tumor model. A combination of fluorescence imaging of tissues ex vivo using Maestro Imaging System, fluorescence quantification in homogenized tissues, and confocal microscopy is used to study biodistribution. VNPs are cleared via the reticuloendothelial system (RES); tumor homing is achieved passively via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect12. The VNP nanotechnology is a powerful plug-and-play technology to image and treat sites of disease in vivo. We are further developing VNPs to carry drug cargos and clinically-relevant imaging moieties, as well as tissue-specific ligands to target molecular receptors overexpressed in cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Viral Nanoparticles for In vivo Tumor Imaging

Plant viral nanoparticles (VNPs) are promising platforms for applications in biomedicine. Here, we describe the procedures for plant VNP propagation, purification, characterization, and bioconjugation. Finally, we show the application of VNPs for tumor homing and imaging using a mouse xenograft model and fluorescence imaging.

The use of nanomaterials has the potential to revolutionize materials science and medicine. Currently, a number of different nanoparticles are being ...

Integrated Photoacoustic Ophthalmoscopy and Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography

Both the clinical diagnosis and fundamental investigation of major ocular diseases greatly benefit from various non-invasive ophthalmic imaging technologies. Existing retinal imaging modalities, such as fundus photography1, confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (cSLO)2, and optical coherence tomography (OCT)3, have significant contributions in monitoring disease onsets and progressions, and developing new therapeutic strategies. However, they predominantly rely on the back-reflected photons from the retina. As a consequence, the optical absorption properties of the retina, which are usually strongly associated with retinal pathophysiology status, are inaccessible by the traditional imaging technologies.
Photoacoustic ophthalmoscopy (PAOM) is an emerging retinal imaging modality that permits the detection of the optical absorption contrasts in the eye with a high sensitivity4-7 . In PAOM nanosecond laser pulses are delivered through the pupil and scanned across the posterior eye to induce photoacoustic (PA) signals, which are detected by an unfocused ultrasonic transducer attached to the eyelid. Because of the strong optical absorption of hemoglobin and melanin, PAOM is capable of non-invasively imaging the retinal and choroidal vasculatures, and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) melanin at high contrasts 6,7. More importantly, based on the well-developed spectroscopic photoacoustic imaging5,8 , PAOM has the potential to map the hemoglobin oxygen saturation in retinal vessels, which can be critical in studying the physiology and pathology of several blinding diseases 9 such as diabetic retinopathy and neovascular age-related macular degeneration.
Moreover, being the only existing optical-absorption-based ophthalmic imaging modality, PAOM can be integrated with well-established clinical ophthalmic imaging techniques to achieve more comprehensive anatomic and functional evaluations of the eye based on multiple optical contrasts6,10 . In this work, we integrate PAOM and spectral-domain OCT (SD-OCT) for simultaneously in vivo retinal imaging of rat, where both optical absorption and scattering properties of the retina are revealed. The system configuration, system alignment and imaging acquisition are presented.

Photoacoustic ophthalmology (PAOM), an optical-absorption-based imaging modality, provides the complementary evaluation of the retina to the currently available ophthalmic imaging technologies. We report the using of PAOM integrated with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) for simultaneous multimodal retinal imaging in rats.

Both the clinical diagnosis and fundamental investigation of major ocular diseases greatly benefit from various non-invasive ophthalmic imaging ...

Anatomical Reconstructions of the Human Cardiac Venous System using Contrast-computed Tomography of Perfusion-fixed Specimens

A detailed understanding of the complexity and relative variability within the human cardiac venous system is crucial for the development of cardiac devices that require access to these vessels. For example, cardiac venous anatomy is known to be one of the key limitations for the proper delivery of cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT)1 Therefore, the development of a database of anatomical parameters for human cardiac venous systems can aid in the design of CRT delivery devices to overcome such a limitation. In this research project, the anatomical parameters were obtained from 3D reconstructions of the venous system using contrast-computed tomography (CT) imaging and modeling software (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium). The following parameters were assessed for each vein: arc length, tortuousity, branching angle, distance to the coronary sinus ostium, and vessel diameter.
	CRT is a potential treatment for patients with electromechanical dyssynchrony. Approximately 10-20% of heart failure patients may benefit from CRT2. Electromechanical dyssynchrony implies that parts of the myocardium activate and contract earlier or later than the normal conduction pathway of the heart. In CRT, dyssynchronous areas of the myocardium are treated with electrical stimulation. CRT pacing typically involves pacing leads that stimulate the right atrium (RA), right ventricle (RV), and left ventricle (LV) to produce more resynchronized rhythms. The LV lead is typically implanted within a cardiac vein, with the aim to overlay it within the site of latest myocardial activation. 
	We believe that the models obtained and the analyses thereof will promote the anatomical education for patients, students, clinicians, and medical device designers. The methodologies employed here can also be utilized to study other anatomical features of our human heart specimens, such as the coronary arteries. To further encourage the educational value of this research, we have shared the venous models on our free access website: <a href="http://www.vhlab.umn.edu/atlas" target="_blank">www.vhlab.umn.edu/atlas</a>.

The objective of this research is to recreate and then access the anatomy of the human cardiac venous system using 3D reconstructions generated from contrast-computed tomography scans.

A detailed  understanding of the complexity and relative variability within the human  cardiac venous system is crucial for the development of cardiac ...

Photoacoustic Cystography

Conventional pediatric cystography, which is based on diagnostic X-ray using a radio-opaque dye, suffers from the use of harmful ionizing radiation. The risk of bladder cancers in children due to radiation exposure is more significant than many other cancers. Here we demonstrate the feasibility of nonionizing and noninvasive photoacoustic (PA) imaging of urinary bladders, referred to as photoacoustic cystography (PAC), using near-infrared (NIR) optical absorbents (i.e. methylene blue, plasmonic gold nanostructures, or single walled carbon nanotubes) as an optical-turbid tracer. We have successfully imaged a rat bladder filled with the optical absorbing agents using a dark-field confocal PAC system. After transurethral injection of the contrast agents, the rat's bladders were photoacoustically visualized by achieving significant PA signal enhancement. The accumulation was validated by spectroscopic PA imaging. Further, by using only a laser pulse energy of less than 1 mJ/cm2 (1/20 of the safety limit), our current imaging system could map the methylene-blue-filled-rat-bladder at the depth of beyond 1 cm in biological tissues in vivo. Both in vivo and ex vivo PA imaging results validate that the contrast agents were naturally excreted via urination. Thus, there is no concern regarding long-term toxic agent accumulation, which will facilitate clinical translation.

Photoacoustic cystography (PAC) has a great potential to map urinary bladders, a radiation sensitive internal organ in pediatric patients, without using any ionizing radiation or toxic contrast agent. Here we demonstrate the use of PAC for mapping urinary bladders with an injection of optical-opaque tracers in rats in vivo.

Conventional pediatric cystography, which is based on diagnostic X-ray using a radio-opaque dye, suffers from the use of harmful ionizing radiation. The ...

The Arteriovenous (AV) Loop in a Small Animal Model to Study Angiogenesis and Vascularized Tissue Engineering

A functional blood vessel network is a prerequisite for the survival and growth of almost all tissues and organs in the human body. Moreover, in pathological situations such as cancer, vascularization plays a leading role in disease progression. Consequently, there is a strong need for a standardized and well-characterized in vivo model in order to elucidate the mechanisms of neovascularization and develop different vascularization approaches for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
We describe a microsurgical approach for a small animal model for induction of a vascular axis consisting of a vein and artery that are anastomosed to an arteriovenous (AV) loop. The AV loop is transferred to an enclosed implantation chamber to create an isolated microenvironment in vivo, which is connected to the living organism only by means of the vascular axis. Using 3D imaging (MRI, micro-CT) and immunohistology, the growing vasculature can be visualized over time. By implanting different cells, growth factors and matrices, their function in blood vessel network formation can be analyzed without any disturbing influences from the surroundings in a well controllable environment. 
In addition to angiogenesis and antiangiogenesis studies, the AV loop model is also perfectly suited for engineering vascularized tissues. After a certain prevascularization time, the generated tissues can be transplanted into the defect site and microsurgically connected to the local vessels, thereby ensuring immediate blood supply and integration of the engineered tissue. By varying the matrices, cells, growth factors and chamber architecture, it is possible to generate various tissues, which can then be tailored to the individual patient's needs.

The Arteriovenous AV Loop in a Small Animal Model to Study Angiogenesis and Vascularized Tissue Engineering

We describe a microsurgical approach for the generation of an arteriovenous (AV) loop as a model for analyzing vascularization in vivo in an isolated and well-characterized environment. This model is not only useful for the investigation of angiogenesis, but is also optimally suited for engineering axially vascularized and transplantable tissues.

A functional blood vessel network is a prerequisite for the survival and growth of almost all tissues and organs in the human body. Moreover, in ...

Switchable Acoustic and Optical Resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy for In Vivo Small-animal Blood Vasculature Imaging

Photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) is a fast-growing invivo imaging modality that combines both optics and ultrasound, providing penetration beyond the optical mean free path (~1 mm in skin) with high resolution. By combining optical absorption contrast with the high spatial resolution of ultrasound in a single modality, this technique can penetrate deep tissues. Photoacoustic microscopy systems can have either a low acoustic resolution and probe deeply or a high optical resolution and probe shallowly. It is challenging to achieve high spatial resolution and large depth penetration with a single system. This work presents an AR-OR-PAM system capable of both high-resolution imaging at shallow depths and low-resolution deep-tissue imaging of the same sample in vivo. A lateral resolution of 4 &#181;m with 1.4 mm imaging depth using optical focusing and a lateral resolution of 45 &#181;m with 7.8 mm imaging depth using acoustic focusing were successfully demonstrated using the combined system. Here,&#160;in vivo&#160;small-animal blood vasculature imaging is performed to demonstrate its biological imaging capability.

Switchable Acoustic and Optical Resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy for In Vivo Small-animal Blood Vasculature Imaging

Here a switchable acoustic resolution (AR) and optical resolution (OR) photoacoustic microscopy (AR-OR-PAM) system capable of both high resolution imaging at shallow depth and low resolution deep tissue imaging on the same sample in vivo is demonstrated.

Photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) is a fast-growing invivo imaging modality that combines both optics and ultrasound, providing penetration beyond the ...

Proper Positioning and Restraint of a Rat Hind Limb for Focused High Resolution Imaging of Bone Micro-architecture Using In Vivo Micro-computed Tomography

The use of in vivo micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) is a powerful tool which involves the non-destructive imaging of internal structures at high resolutions in live animal models. This allows for repeated imaging of the same rodent over time. This feature not only reduces the total number of rodents required in an experimental design and thereby reduces the inter-subject variation that can arise, but also allows researchers to assess longitudinal or life-long responses to an intervention. To acquire high quality images that can be processed and analyzed to more accurately quantify outcomes of bone micro-architecture, users of in vivo &#181;CT scanners must properly anesthetize the rat, and position and restrain the hind limb. To do this, it is imperative that the rat be anesthetized to a level of complete relaxation, and that pedal reflexes are lost. These guidelines may be modified for each individual rat, as the rate of isoflurane metabolism can vary depending on strain and body size. Proper technique for in vivo &#181;CT image acquisition enables accurate and consistent measurement of bone micro-architecture within and across studies.

Proper Positioning and Restraint of a Rat Hind Limb for Focused High Resolution Imaging of Bone Micro-architecture Using In Vivo Micro-computed Tomography

This paper instructs users of in vivo micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) scanners how to anesthetize, correctly position and restrain the hind limb of a rat for minimal movement during high-resolution imaging of the tibia. The result is high quality images that can be processed to accurately quantify bone micro-architecture.

The use of in vivo micro-computed tomography (&#181;CT) is a powerful tool which involves the non-destructive imaging of internal structures at high ...

Hand-held Clinical Photoacoustic Imaging System for Real-time Non-invasive Small Animal Imaging

Translation of photoacoustic imaging into the clinic is a major challenge. Handheld real-time clinical photoacoustic imaging systems are very rare. Here, we report a combined photoacoustic and clinical ultrasound imaging system by integrating an ultrasound probe with light delivery for small animal imaging. We demonstrate this by showing sentinel lymph node imaging in small animals along with minimally invasive real-time needle guidance. A clinical ultrasound platform with access to raw channel data allows the integration of photoacoustic imaging leading to a handheld real-time clinical photoacoustic imaging system. Methylene blue was used for sentinel lymph node imaging at 675 nm wavelength. Additionally, needle guidance with dual modal ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging was shown using the imaging system. Depth imaging of up to 1.5 cm was demonstrated with a 10 Hz laser at a photoacoustic imaging frame rate of 5 frames per second.

A clinical handheld photoacoustic imaging system will be demonstrated for real-time non-invasive small animal imaging.

Translation of photoacoustic imaging into the clinic is a major challenge. Handheld real-time clinical photoacoustic imaging systems are very rare. Here, ...

Rigid Embedding of Fixed and Stained, Whole, Millimeter-Scale Specimens for Section-free 3D Histology by Micro-Computed Tomography

For over a hundred years, the histological study of tissues has been the gold standard for medical diagnosis because histology allows all cell types in every tissue to be identified and characterized. Our laboratory is actively working to make technological advances in X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) that will bring the diagnostic power of histology to the study of full tissue volumes at cellular resolution (i.e., an X-ray Histo-tomography modality). Toward this end, we have made targeted improvements to the sample preparation pipeline. One key optimization, and the focus of the present work, is a straightforward method for rigid embedding of fixed and stained millimeter-scale samples. Many of the published methods for sample immobilization and correlative micro-CT imaging rely on placing the samples in paraffin wax, agarose, or liquids such as alcohol. Our approach extends this work with custom procedures and the design of a 3-dimensional printable apparatus to embed the samples in an acrylic resin directly into polyimide tubing, which is relatively transparent to X-rays. Herein, sample preparation procedures are described for the samples from 0.5 to 10 mm in diameter, which would be suitable for whole zebrafish larvae and juveniles, or other animals and tissue samples of similar dimensions. As proof of concept, we have embedded the specimens from Danio, Drosophila, Daphnia, and a mouse embryo; representative images from 3-dimensional scans for three of these samples are shown. Importantly, our methodology leads to multiple benefits including rigid immobilization, long-term preservation of laboriously-created resources, and the ability to re-interrogate samples.

We developed protocols and designed a custom apparatus to enable embedding of millimeter-scale specimens. We present sample preparation procedures with an emphasis on embedding in acrylic resin and polyimide tubing to achieve rigid immobilization and long-term storage of specimens for the interrogation of tissue architecture and cell morphology by micro-CT.

For over a hundred years, the histological study of tissues has been the gold standard for medical diagnosis because histology allows all cell types in ...