Name: visualization and quantification of brown and beige adipose tissues in mice using [18f]fdg micro-pet/mr imaging
Uploaded: 2021-07-01T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization and Quantification of Brown and Beige Adipose Tissues in Mice using [18F]FDG Micro-PET/MR Imaging at JoVE.com

We thank the support of National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) - Excellent Young Scientists Fund (Hong Kong and Macau) (81922079), Hong Kong Research Grants Council General Research Fund (GRF 17121520 and 17123419), and Hong Kong Research Grants Council Collaborative Research Fund (CRF C7018-14E) for small animal imaging experiments.

The protocol described below follows the animal care guidelines of The University of Hong Kong. The animals used in the study were 8-week-old C57BL/6J mice.
1. Animal surgical procedures and cold challenge
<ol>
	<li>Perform interscapular BAT (iBAT) dissection.
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize the mice by intraperitoneal injection of ketamine/xylazine (100 mg/kg bodyweight ketamine and 10 mg/kg bodyweight xylazine). After anesthesia, shave the hair of the mouse from the neck to just below the scapulae...

<ol>
	<li>Rosen, E. D., Spiegelman, B. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What+we+talk+about+when+we+talk+about+fat.">What we talk about when we talk about fat.</a> Cell. 156 (1-2), 20-44 (2014).</li><li>Cannon, B., Brown Nedergaard, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=adipose+tissue:+function+and+physiological+significance.">adipose tissue: function and physiological significance.</a> Physiological Review. 84 (1), 277-359 (2004).</li><li>Jal Wu, ., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beige+adipocytes+are+a+distinct+type+of+thermogenic+fat+cell+in+mouse+and.">Beige adipocytes are a distinct type of thermogenic fat cell in mouse and.</a> 150 (2), 366-376 (2012).</li><li>Cypess, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+human+brown+adipose+tissue+by+a+beta3-adrenergic+receptor+agonist.">Activation of human brown adipose tissue by a beta3-adrenergic receptor agonist.</a> Cell Metabolism. 21 (1), 33-38 (2015).</li><li>Ishibashi, J., Seale, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beige+can+be+slimming.">Beige can be slimming.</a> Science. 328 (5982), 1113-1114 (2010).</li><li>Jal Schulz, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brown-fat+paucity+due+to+impaired+BMP+signalling+induces+compensatory+browning+of+white+fat.">Brown-fat paucity due to impaired BMP signalling induces compensatory browning of white fat.</a> Nature. 495 (7441), 379-383 (2013).</li><li>Pal Cohen, ., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ablation+of+PRDM16+and+beige+adipose+causes+metabolic+dysfunction+and+a+subcutaneous+to+visceral+fat+switch.">Ablation of PRDM16 and beige adipose causes metabolic dysfunction and a subcutaneous to visceral fat switch.</a> Cell. 156 (1-2), 304-316 (2014).</li><li>Mal Cypess, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+and+importance+of+brown+adipose+tissue+in+adult+humans.">Identification and importance of brown adipose tissue in adult humans.</a> New England Journal of Medicine. 360 (15), 1509-1517 (2009).</li><li>Aal vander Lans, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cold+acclimation+recruits+human+brown+fat+and+increases+nonshivering+thermogenesis.">Cold acclimation recruits human brown fat and increases nonshivering thermogenesis.</a> Journal of Clinical Investigation. 123 (8), 3395-3403 (2013).</li><li>Jal Hanssen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Short-term+cold+acclimation+improves+insulin+sensitivity+in+patients+with+type+2+diabetes+mellitus.">Short-term cold acclimation improves insulin sensitivity in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.</a> Nature Medicine. 21 (8), 863-865 (2015).</li><li>Wang, X., Minze, L. J., Shi, Z. Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+imaging+of+brown+fat+in+mice+with+18F-FDG+micro-PET/CT.">Functional imaging of brown fat in mice with 18F-FDG micro-PET/CT.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. 69, (2012).</li><li>Greenwood, H. E., Nyitrai, Z., Mocsai, G., Hobor, S., Witney, T. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+PET/CT+imaging+using+a+multiple-mouse+imaging+system.">High-throughput PET/CT imaging using a multiple-mouse imaging system.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Scoiety of Nuclear Medicine. 61 (2), 292-297 (2020).</li><li>Carter, L. M., Henry, K. E., Platzman, A., Lewis, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D-printable+platform+for+high-throughput+small-animal+imaging.">3D-printable platform for high-throughput small-animal imaging.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Scoiety of Nuclear Medicine. 61 (11), 1691-1692 (2020).</li><li>Jal Andersson, ., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Estimating+the+cold-induced+brown+adipose+tissue+glucose+uptake+rate+measured+by+(18)F-FDG+PET+using+infrared+thermography+and+water-fat+separated+MRI.">Estimating the cold-induced brown adipose tissue glucose uptake rate measured by (18)F-FDG PET using infrared thermography and water-fat separated MRI.</a> Scientific Reports. 9 (18), 12358 (2019).</li><li>Eal Lundstrom, ., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brown+adipose+tissue+estimated+with+the+magnetic+resonance+imaging+fat+fraction+is+associated+with+glucose+metabolism+in+adolescents.">Brown adipose tissue estimated with the magnetic resonance imaging fat fraction is associated with glucose metabolism in adolescents.</a> Pediatric Obesity. 14 (9), (2019).</li><li>Eal Lundstrom, ., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+resonance+imaging+cooling-reheating+protocol+indicates+decreased+fat+fraction+via+lipid+consumption+in+suspected+brown+adipose+tissue.">Magnetic resonance imaging cooling-reheating protocol indicates decreased fat fraction via lipid consumption in suspected brown adipose tissue.</a> PLoS One. 10 (4), 0126705 (2015).</li><li>Nakamura, Y., Yanagawa, Y., Morrison, S. F., Nakamura, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Medullary+reticular+neurons+mediate+neuropeptide+Y-induced+metabolic+inhibition+and+mastication.">Medullary reticular neurons mediate neuropeptide Y-induced metabolic inhibition and mastication.</a> Cell Metabolism. 25 (2), 322-334 (2017).</li><li>Jal Fueger, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+animal+handling+on+the+results+of+18F-FDG+PET+studies+in+mice.">Impact of animal handling on the results of 18F-FDG PET studies in mice.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine: Official Publication, Scoiety of Nuclear Medicine. 47 (6), 999-1006 (2006).</li><li>Vines, D. C., Green, D. E., Kudo, G., Keller, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+mouse+tail-vein+injections+both+qualitatively+and+quantitatively+on+small-animal+PET+tail+scans.">Evaluation of mouse tail-vein injections both qualitatively and quantitatively on small-animal PET tail scans.</a> Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology. 39 (4), 264-270 (2011).</li></ol>

In this study, a PET/MR -based imaging and quantification of functional brown and beige adipose tissue in small animal was described. This method uses the non-metabolizable glucose analog [18F]FDG as an imaging biomarker so as to identify the adipose tissues with high glucose-demand in a non-invasive manner. MR offers good soft tissue contrast and can better differentiate adipose fat tissues from the neighboring soft tissues and muscle. When combined with PET, this enables imaging and quantifying of the activa...

In response to changing nutritional needs, adipose tissue serves as an energy cache to adopt either lipid storage or mobilization mode to meet the needs of the body1. Moreover, adipose tissue also plays a key function in thermoregulation, via a process called non-shivering thermogenesis, also called facultative thermogenesis. This is typically achieved by the brown adipose tissue (BAT), which expresses abundant level of mitochondria membrane protein uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). As a proton carrier, UCP1 generates heat by uncoupling the proton transport and ATP production2. Upon cold stimulation, thermogenesis in BAT is set in motion by activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), followed by release of norepinephrine (NE). NE binds to the &#946;3 adrenergic receptors and leads to elevation of intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP). As a consequence, cAMP/PKA-dependent engagement of CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) stimulates Ucp1 transcription via direct binding on CREB-response elements (CRE)2. In addition to BAT, brown-like adipocytes are also found within white adipose tissue and are therefore named beige or brite (brown-in-white) cells1,3. In response to specific stimuli (such as cold), these otherwise quiescent beige cells are remodeled to exhibit multiple brown-like features, including multilocular lipid droplets, densely-packed mitochondria, and augmented UCP1 expression3,4,5.
Animal studies have demonstrated that brown and beige adipocytes possess multiple metabolic benefits beyond its fat-reducing effect, including insulin-sensitization, lipid-lowering, anti-inflammation, and anti-atherosclerosis6,7. In humans, the amount of beige/brown fat is inversely correlated with age, insulin resistance index, and cardiometabolic disorders8. Moreover, activation of beige/brown adipocytes in humans by either cold acclimation or &#946;3 adrenergic receptor agonist confers protection against a series of metabolic disorders4,9,10. These pieces of evidence collectively indicate that induction of brown and beige adipose tissue is a potential therapeutic strategy for management of obesity and its related medical complications8.
Interestingly, although they share similar function, beige and classical brown adipocytes are derived from different precursors and activated by overlapping but distinct mechanisms1. Therefore, in vivo imaging and quantification of brown and beige adipocytes are essential to achieve a better understanding of the molecular control of these adipose tissues. Currently 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) scan combined with computed tomography (CT) remains the gold standard for characterization of thermogenic brown and beige cells in clinical studies8. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses powerful magnetic fields and radio frequency pulses to produce detailed anatomical structures. Compared to CT scan, MRI generates images of organs and soft tissues with a higher resolution. Provided here is a protocol for visualization and quantification of functional brown and beige adiposes in mouse models after acclimation to cold exposure, a common and most reliable way to induce adipose browning. This method can be applied to characterize the thermogenic adipose depots in small animal models with high precision.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.9% sterile saline</td>
			<td>BBraun</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>0.9% sodium chloride intravenous infusion, 500 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 mL syringe</td>
			<td>Terumo</td>
			<td>SS05L</td>
			<td>5 mL syringe Luer Lock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dose Calibrator</td>
			<td>Biodex</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Atomlab 500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eye lubricant</td>
			<td>Alcon Duratears</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Sterile ocular lubricant ointment, 3.5 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Insulin syringe</td>
			<td>Terumo</td>
			<td>10ME2913</td>
			<td>1 mL insulin syringe with needle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>InterView Fusion software</td>
			<td>Mediso</td>
			<td>Version 3.03</td>
			<td>Post-processing and image analysis software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Chanelle Pharma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Iso-Vet, inhalation anesthetic, 250 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine</td>
			<td>Alfasan International B.V.</td>
			<td>HK-37715</td>
			<td>Ketamine 10% injection solution, 10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Medical oxygen</td>
			<td>Linde HKO</td>
			<td>101-HR</td>
			<td>compressed gas, 99.5% purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metacam</td>
			<td>Boehringer Ingelheim</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5 mg/mL Meloxicam solution for injection for dogs and cats, 10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>nanoScan PET/MR Scanner</td>
			<td>Mediso</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3 Tesla MR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nucline nanoScan software</td>
			<td>Mediso</td>
			<td>Version 3.0</td>
			<td>Scanner operating software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wound clips</td>
			<td>Reflex 7</td>
			<td>203-100</td>
			<td>7mm Stainless steel wound clips, 20 clips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine</td>
			<td>Alfasan International B.V.</td>
			<td>HK-56179</td>
			<td>Xylazine 2% injection solution, 30 mL</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualization and quantification of brown and beige adipose tissues in mice using [18f]fdg micro-pet/mr imaging

Brown and beige adipocytes are now recognized as potential therapeutic targets for obesity and metabolic syndromes. Non-invasive molecular imaging methods are essential to provide critical insights into these thermogenic adipose depots. Here, the protocol presents a PET/MR imaging-based method to evaluate the activity of brown and beige adipocytes in mouse interscapular brown adipose tissue (iBAT) and inguinal subcutaneous white adipose tissue (iWAT). Visualization and quantification of the thermogenic adipose depots were achieved using [18F]FDG, the non-metabolizable glucose analog, as the radiotracer, when combined with the precise anatomical information provided by MR imaging. The PET/MR imaging was conducted 7 days after cold acclimation and quantitation of [18F]FDG signal in different adipose depots was conducted to assess the relative mobilization of thermogenic adipose tissues. Removal of iBAT substantially increased cold-evoked [18F]FDG uptake in iWAT of the mice.

Three groups of mice (n = 3 per group) underwent micro-PET/MR imaging in this study, where they were housed at either thermoneutrality (30 &#176;C) or cold (6 &#176;C) for 7 days. One group of mice (n = 3) had their iBAT removed (iBATx) prior to cold treatment (Figure 1A). This method led to an alteration to the white adipose tissue activity in all three mice. In particular, a remarkable increase in [18F]FDG uptake was observed in iWAT using micro-PET/MR imaging (<strong class="xf...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualization and Quantification of Brown and Beige Adipose Tissues in Mice using [18F]FDG Micro-PET/MR Imaging at JoVE.com

Visualization and Quantification of Brown and Beige Adipose Tissues in Mice using [18F]FDG Micro-PET/MR Imaging

Functional imaging and quantitation of thermogenic adipose depots in mice using a micro-PET/MR imaging-based approach.

Visualization and Quantification of Brown and Beige Adipose Tissues in Mice using [18F]FDG Micro-PET/MR Imaging

Brown and beige adipocytes are now recognized as potential therapeutic targets for obesity and metabolic syndromes. Non-invasive molecular imaging methods ...

PET/MR imaging allows for both qualitative and quantitative measurements on these metabolically-active brown and beige adipocytes in live animals so that the activity of these so-called thermogenic adipocytes can be measured on a functional basis. The main advantage of this technique is that it allows acquisition and combination of PET and MRI scans on the same subject, thus enabling precise and simultaneous acquisition of thermogenic adipocytes in different depots of the small animal. This method can be easily transferred into any preclinical system or modified into a high throughput format by simultaneously imaging of multiple mice, thereby increasing the statistical power of the imaging data at a reduced cost and time.To harvest the interscapular brown adipose tissue, place an anesthetized 8-week-old C57 Black 6 mouse onto a heating pad and make a 2 centimeter incision along the dorsal midline. Remove the iBAT pads from the interscapular region. After the bleeding stops, use 7 millimeter stainless steel wound clips to close the incision.When all of the iBAT has been collected, house the mice in an intensive care unit for 14 days. Administer 5 milligram per kilogram Meloxicam to the mice for six days and remove the clips as soon as the wound has healed. To enable automated sequential PET/MR scans prior to imaging session, set the discrimination level to 400 to 600 kiloelectron-volts, the confidence mode to 1-3, the scanning time to 20 minutes, and the study isotope to F-18 to set the workflow for PET acquisition.To acquire T1-weighted magnetic resonance for attenuation correction, set the Gradient Echo-3D parameters. To acquire T2-weighted magnetic resonance as an anatomical reference, set the Fast-spin Echo 2D parameters. To allow reconstruction of the PET images, use the Tera-Tomo 3D algorithm with the coincidence mode set to 1-3 and with the decay, deadtime, random, attenuation, and scatter corrections set to create images with an overall voxel size of 0.3 cubic millimeters.One day before the start of the imaging study to check the accuracy of the PET quantitation, put on the appropriate PPE and fill a 5 milliliter syringe with F18-FDG as recommended by the manufacturer. Use a dose calibrator to record the activity of the syringe and note the time of the measurement. In the software, use the Interpolated Ellipse ROI to draw a volume-of-interest on the reconstructed image of the syringe and compare the recovered activity to the value measured using the dose calibrator.On the day of the imaging experiment, use forceps to carefully place the 18F-FDG stock vial behind an L-block tabletop shield and dilute an aliquot of radioisotope in 100 to 150 microliters of sterile saline to a total activity concentration of 200 to 250 microcuries. Draw the 18F-FDG solution into a 1 milliliter syringe equipped with a needle and measure the radioactivity with the dose calibrator as demonstrated. Record the weight of the mouse to be imaged before injecting the 18F-FDG solution into a tail vein.Take note of the injection time and the residual radioactivity of the syringe to enable decay correction. Then place the mouse back into its cage for 60 minutes. To calculate the injected 18F-FDG activity, subtract the activity in the syringe before the injection from the activity measured after the injection.At the end of the radioisotope uptake period, turn on the air heater for the mouse bed of the micro-PET/MR scanner. Place the anesthetized FDG-injected mouse onto a respiratory pad in the scanner bed and perform a scout view to determine the mouse position. Adjust the position of the mouse bed such that the entire body can be observed, ensuring that the center of the MRI field of view coincides with the center of the body.Under PET Acquisition, select Scan Range on Previous Acquisition to use the scout view position and click Prepare to move the animal bed from MR to PET. Select OK to initiate the PET scan. Record the injection dose and time measured before and after 18F-FDG administration in the Radiopharmaceutical Editor and enter the weight of the mouse under the Subject Information menu.Once the PET scan is complete, select Prepare to move to MR imaging and complete all MR acquisitions in the study list window. Select OK to start the MR scans. After the whole workflow has completed, briefly evaluate the quality of the acquired MR images in the post-processing software and click Home to move the mouse bed from MR to the original position.When all mice have been imaged, to reconstruct the data in the Raw Scan menu, select PET Acquisition to load the completed PET scan and select T1-weighted MR Acquisition to allow a material map to be created. Then use the Tera-Tomo 3D algorithm to reconstruct the data as demonstrated. The removal of iBAT prior to cold treatment alters the activity of the iWAT, as indicated by the remarkable increase in 18F-FDG uptake observed in iWAT by micro-PET/MR imaging.In addition, multilocular adipocytes, which are characteristically observed in beige adipose tissue, are more pronounced in iWAT from mice after iBAT removal compared to the adipocyte morphology observed in iWAT from sham-operated animals. Cold-treated, sham-operated mice demonstrate a markedly elevated 18F-FDG uptake in iBAT. Mice with their iBAT removed prior to cold treatment show the highest 18F-FDG uptake in the iWAT.Indeed, cold exposure causes a sevenfold increase in 18F-FDG uptake in the iBAT of sham-operated mice, while the removal of iBAT in the cold-induced mice results in an eightfold increase in 18F-FDG uptake compared to thermo-neutral mice in which only a modest twofold increase is observed. When attempting this procedure, placing each mouse in a same position for each PET/MRI acquisition is important to improve the visualization and quantification of brown and beige adipocytes in different regions. Using this method and together with other MRI methods, such as diffusion with imaging or thermometry, more insights into the spatial distribution and prevalence of brown and beige adipocytes in mice can begin, which can potentially be translated into humans.This method allows the researchers to study the function of these thermogenic brown and beige adipocytes. Therefore, they are especially powerful when studying the nonclinical thermogenic pathways wherein those classical markers are not altered or upregulated.

visualization-quantification-brown-beige-adipose-tissues-mice-using

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Functional Imaging of Brown Fat in Mice with 18F-FDG micro-PET/CT

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) differs from white adipose tissue (WAT) by its discrete location and a brown-red color due to rich vascularization and high density of mitochondria. BAT plays a major role in energy expenditure and non-shivering thermogenesis in newborn mammals as well as the adults 1. BAT-mediated thermogenesis is highly regulated by the sympathetic nervous system, predominantly via &beta; adrenergic receptor 2, 3. Recent studies have shown that BAT activities in human adults are negatively correlated with body mass index (BMI) and other diabetic parameters 4-6. BAT has thus been proposed as a potential target for anti-obesity/anti-diabetes therapy focusing on modulation of energy balance 6-8. While several cold challenge-based positron emission tomography (PET) methods are established for detecting human BAT 9-13, there is essentially no standardized protocol for imaging and quantification of BAT in small animal models such as mice. Here we describe a robust PET/CT imaging method for functional assessment of BAT in mice. Briefly, adult C57BL/6J mice were cold treated under fasting conditions for a duration of 4 hours before they received one dose of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG). The mice were remained in the cold for one additional hour post FDG injection, and then scanned with a small animal-dedicated micro-PET/CT system. The acquired PET images were co-registered with the CT images for anatomical references and analyzed for FDG uptake in the interscapular BAT area to present BAT activity. This standardized cold-treatment and imaging protocol has been validated through testing BAT activities during pharmacological interventions, for example, the suppressed BAT activation by the treatment of &beta;-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol 14, 15, or the enhanced BAT activation by &beta;3 agonist BRL37344 16. The method described here can be applied to screen for drugs/compounds that modulate BAT activity, or to identify genes/pathways that are involved in BAT development and regulation in various preclinical and basic studies.

Functional Imaging of Brown Fat in Mice with 18F-FDG micro-PET/CT

A method of functional imaging of mouse brown adipose tissue (BAT) is described in which cold-stimulated uptake of 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) in BAT is non-invasively assessed with a standardized micro-PET/CT protocol. This method is robust and sensitive to detect differences in BAT activities in mouse models.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) differs from white adipose  tissue (WAT) by its discrete location and a brown-red color due to rich  vascularization and high ...

Visualization and Quantification of Mesenchymal Cell Adipogenic Differentiation Potential with a Lineage Specific Marker

Several dyes are currently available for use in detecting differentiation of mesenchymal cells into adipocytes. Dyes, such as Oil Red O, are cheap, easy to use and widely utilized by laboratories analyzing the adipogenic potential of mesenchymal cells. However, they are not specific to changes in gene transcription. We have developed a gene-specific differentiation assay to analyze when a mesenchymal cell has switched its fate to an adipogenic lineage. Immuno-labelling against fatty acid binding protein-4 (FABP4), a lineage-specific marker of adipogenic differentiation, enabled visualization and quantification of differentiated cells. The ability to quantify adipogenic differentiation potential of mesenchymal cells in a 96 well microplate format has promising implications for a number of applications. Hundreds of clinical trials involve the use of adult mesenchymal stromal cells and it is currently difficult to correlate therapeutic outcomes within and especially between such clinical trials. This simple high-throughput FABP4 assay provides a quantitative assay for assessing the differentiation potential of patient-derived cells and is a robust tool for comparing different isolation and expansion methods. This is particularly important given the increasing recognition of the heterogeneity of the cells being administered to patients in mesenchymal cell products. The assay also has potential utility in high throughput drug screening, particularly in obesity and pre-diabetes research.

Traditional methods of assessing adipogenic differentiation are cheap and easy to use, but are not specific to changes in gene expression. We have developed an assay to quantify mesenchymal cell differentiation into mature adipocytes using a lineage specific marker. This assay has diverse applications across basic research and clinical medicine.

Several dyes are currently available for use in detecting differentiation of mesenchymal cells into adipocytes. Dyes, such as Oil Red O, are cheap, easy ...

Visualization of 3D White Adipose Tissue Structure Using Whole-mount Staining

Adipose tissue is an important metabolic organ with high plasticity and is responsive to environmental stimuli and nutrient status. As such, various techniques have been developed to study the morphology and biology of adipose tissue. However, conventional visualization methods are limited to studying the tissue in 2D sections, failing to capture the 3D architecture of the whole organ. Here we present whole-mount staining, an immunohistochemistry method that preserves intact adipose tissue morphology with minimal processing steps. Hence, the structures of adipocytes and other cellular components are maintained without distortion, achieving the most representative 3D visualization of the tissue. In addition, whole-mount staining can be combined with lineage tracing methods to determine cell fate decisions. However, this technique has some limitations to providing accurate information regarding deeper parts of adipose tissue. To overcome this limitation, whole-mount staining can be further combined with tissue clearing techniques to remove the opaqueness of tissue and allow for complete visualization of entire adipose tissue anatomy using light-sheet fluorescent microscopy. Therefore, a higher resolution and more accurate representation of adipose tissue structures can be captured with the combination of these techniques.

The focus of the present study is to demonstrate the whole-mount immunostaining and visualization technique as an ideal method for 3D imaging of adipose tissue architecture and cellular component.

Adipose tissue is an important metabolic organ with high plasticity and is responsive to environmental stimuli and nutrient status. As such, various ...

Exploring Adipose Tissue Structure by Methylsalicylate Clearing and 3D Imaging

Obesity is a major worldwide public health issue that increases the risk to develop cardiovascular diseases, type-2 diabetes, and liver diseases. Obesity is characterized by an increase in adipose tissue (AT) mass due to adipocyte hyperplasia and/or hypertrophia, leading to profound remodeling of its three-dimensional structure. Indeed, the maximal capacity of AT to expand during obesity is pivotal to the development of obesity-associated pathologies. This AT expansion is an important homeostatic mechanism to enable adaptation to an excess of energy intake and to avoid deleterious lipid spillover to other metabolic organs, such as muscle and liver. Therefore, understanding the structural remodeling that leads to the failure of AT expansion is a fundamental question with high clinical applicability. In this article, we describe a simple and fast clearing method that is routinely used in our laboratory to explore the morphology of mouse and human white adipose tissue by fluorescent imaging. This optimized AT clearing method is easily performed in any standard laboratory equipped with a chemical hood, a temperature-controlled orbital shaker and a fluorescent microscope. Moreover, the chemical compounds used are readily available. Importantly, this method allows one to resolve the 3D AT structure by staining various markers to specifically visualize the adipocytes, the neuronal and vascular networks, and the innate and adaptive immune cells distribution.

Here, we describe a simple, inexpensive and fast clearing method to resolve the 3D structure of both mouse and human white adipose tissue using a combination of markers to visualize vasculature, nuclei, immune cells, neurons, and lipid-droplet coat proteins by fluorescent imaging.

Obesity is a major worldwide public health issue that increases the risk to develop cardiovascular diseases, type-2 diabetes, and liver diseases. Obesity ...

Preparation of Adipose Progenitor Cells from Mouse Epididymal Adipose Tissues

Obesity and metabolic disorders such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer, are all associated with dramatic adipose tissue remodeling. Tissue-resident adipose progenitor cells (APCs) play a key role in adipose tissue homeostasis and can contribute to the tissue pathology. The growing use of single cell analysis technologies &#8211; including single-cell RNA-sequencing and single-cell proteomics &#8211; is transforming the stem/progenitor cell field by permitting unprecedented resolution of individual cell expression changes within the context of population- or tissue-wide changes. In this article, we provide detailed protocols to dissect mouse epididymal adipose tissue, isolate single adipose tissue-derived cells, and perform fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) to enrich for viable Sca1+/CD31-/CD45-/Ter119- APCs. These protocols will allow investigators to prepare high quality APCs suitable for downstream analyses such as single cell RNA sequencing.

We present a simple method to isolate highly viable adipose progenitor cells from mouse epididymal fat pads using fluorescence activated cell sorting.

Obesity and metabolic disorders such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer, are all associated with dramatic adipose tissue remodeling. Tissue-resident ...

Isolation and Differentiation of Primary White and Brown Preadipocytes from Newborn Mice

The understanding of the mechanisms underlying adipocyte differentiation and function has greatly benefited from the use of immortalized white preadipocyte cell lines. These cultured cell lines, however, have limitations. They do not fully capture the diverse functional spectrum of the heterogenous adipocyte populations that are now known to exist within white adipose depots. To provide a more physiologically relevant model to study the complexity of white adipose tissue, a protocol has been developed and optimized to enable simultaneous isolation of primary white and brown adipocyte progenitors from newborn mice, their rapid expansion in culture, and their differentiation in vitro into mature, fully functional adipocytes. The primary advantage of isolating primary cells from newborn, rather than adult mice, is that the adipose depots are actively developing and are, therefore, a rich source of proliferating preadipocytes. Primary preadipocytes isolated using this protocol differentiate rapidly upon reaching confluence and become fully mature in 4-5 days, a temporal window that accurately reflects the appearance of developed fat pads in newborn mice. Primary cultures prepared using this strategy can be expanded and studied with high reproducibility, making them suitable for genetic and phenotypic screens and enabling the study of the cell-autonomous adipocyte phenotypes of genetic mouse models. This protocol offers a simple, rapid, and inexpensive approach to study the complexity of adipose tissue in vitro.

This report describes a protocol for the simultaneous isolation of primary brown and white preadipocytes from newborn mice. Isolated cells can be grown in culture and induced to differentiate into fully mature white and brown adipocytes. The method enables genetic, molecular, and functional characterization of primary fat cells in culture.

The understanding of the mechanisms underlying adipocyte differentiation and function has greatly benefited from the use of immortalized white ...

Quantification of Interbacterial Competition using Single-Cell Fluorescence Imaging

Interbacterial competition can directly impact the structure and function of microbiomes. This work describes a fluorescence microscopy approach that can be used to visualize and quantify competitive interactions between different bacterial strains at the single-cell level. The protocol described here provides methods for advanced approaches in slide preparation on both upright and inverted epifluorescence microscopes, live-cell and time-lapse imaging techniques, and quantitative image analysis using the open-source software FIJI. The approach in this manuscript outlines the quantification of competitive interactions between symbiotic Vibrio fischeri populations by measuring the change in area over time for two coincubated strains that are expressing different fluorescent proteins from stable plasmids. Alternative methods are described for optimizing this protocol in bacterial model systems that require different growth conditions. Although the assay described here uses conditions optimized for V. fischeri, this approach is highly reproducible and can easily be adapted to study competition among culturable isolates from diverse microbiomes.

This manuscript describes a method for using single-cell fluorescence microscopy to visualize and quantify bacterial competition in coculture.

Interbacterial competition can directly impact the structure and function of microbiomes. This work describes a fluorescence microscopy approach that can ...

Differentiation and Imaging of Brown Adipocytes from the Stromal Vascular Fraction of Interscapular Adipose Tissue from Newborn Mice

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is only present in mammals and has a thermogenic function. Brown adipocytes are characterized by a multilocular cytoplasm with multiple lipid droplets, a central nucleus, a high mitochondrial content, and the expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). BAT has been proposed as a potential therapeutic target for obesity and its associated metabolic disorders due to its ability to dissipate metabolic energy as heat. To investigate BAT function and regulation, brown adipocyte culturing is indispensable. The present protocol optimizes tissue processing and cell differentiation for culturing brown adipocytes from newborn mice. Additionally, procedures for the imaging of differentiated adipocytes with both confocal immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy are shown. In the brown adipocytes differentiated with the techniques described herein, the major defining features of classical BAT are preserved, including high UCP1 levels, increased mitochondrial mass, and very close physical contact between the lipid droplets and mitochondria, making this method a valuable tool for BAT studies.

Preadipocytes are isolated from the stromal vascular fraction of interscapular brown adipose tissue from newborn mice and differentiated into cells that accumulate lipid droplets, express molecular markers, and show the mitochondrial morphology of mature brown adipocytes. These cells are further analyzed by immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy.

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is only present in mammals and has a thermogenic function. Brown adipocytes are characterized by a multilocular cytoplasm with ...

Quantitative Determination of De Novo Fatty Acid Synthesis in Brown Adipose Tissue Using Deuterium Oxide

Fatty acid synthesis is a complex and highly energy demanding metabolic pathway with important functional roles in the control of whole-body metabolic homeostasis and other physiological and pathological processes. Contrary to other key metabolic pathways, such as glucose disposal, fatty acid synthesis is not routinely functionally assessed, leading to incomplete interpretations of metabolic status. In addition, there is a lack of publicly available detailed protocols suitable for newcomers in the field. Here, we describe an inexpensive quantitative method utilizing deuterium oxide and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) for the analysis of total fatty acid de novo synthesis in brown adipose tissue in vivo. This method measures the synthesis of the products of fatty acid synthase independently of a carbon source, and it is potentially useful for virtually any tissue, in any mouse model, and under any external perturbation. Details on the sample preparation for GCMS and downstream calculations are provided. We focus on the analysis of brown fat due to its high levels of de novo fatty acid synthesis and critical roles in maintaining metabolic homeostasis.

Quantitative Determination of De Novo Fatty Acid Synthesis in Brown Adipose Tissue Using Deuterium Oxide

Here, we present an inexpensive quantitative method utilizing deuterium oxide and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) for the analysis of total fatty acid de novo lipogenesis in brown adipose tissue in vivo.

Fatty acid synthesis is a complex and highly energy demanding metabolic pathway with important functional roles in the control of whole-body metabolic ...

Quantification of Skeletal Muscle Fatty Infiltration via Decellularization

Decellularization-Based Quantification of Skeletal Muscle Fatty Infiltration

Fatty infiltration is the accumulation of adipocytes between myofibers in skeletal muscle and is a prominent feature of many myopathies, metabolic disorders, and dystrophies. Clinically in human populations, fatty infiltration is assessed using noninvasive methods, including computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound (US). Although some studies have used CT or MRI to quantify fatty infiltration in mouse muscle, costs and insufficient spatial resolution remain challenging. Other small animal methods utilize histology to visualize individual adipocytes; however, this methodology suffers from sampling bias in heterogeneous pathology. This protocol describes the methodology to qualitatively view and quantitatively measure fatty infiltration comprehensively throughout intact mouse muscle and at the level of individual adipocytes using decellularization. The protocol is not limited to specific muscles or specific species and can be extended to human biopsy. Additionally, gross qualitative and quantitative assessments can be made with standard laboratory equipment for little cost, making this procedure more accessible across research laboratories.

Author Spotlight: Decellularization-Based Quantification of Skeletal Muscle Fatty Infiltration  

The present study describes decellularization-based methodologies for visualizing and quantifying intramuscular adipose tissue (IMAT) deposition through intact muscle volume, as well as quantifying metrics of individual adipocytes that comprise IMAT.